Abrahams / Pridham / Hiller Semiconductor Circuits

Theory, Design and Experiment
1. Auflage 1966
ISBN: 978-1-4831-8578-1
Verlag: Elsevier Science & Techn.
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: 6 - ePub Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 320 Seiten

Semiconductor Circuits: Theory, Design and Experiment details the information that are essential in designing and modifying circuits involving transistors and related semiconductor devices. The main concern of the book is the practical aspects of designing transistor circuits. The title first covers the physical theory of semiconductors, which includes the production of pn junctions, and the characteristics and equivalent circuits of transistors. Next, the selection covers the design of circuits, such as oscillator circuits, pulse circuits, and computing circuits. The last part of the text deals with experiment with semiconductors. The book will be of great use to students of electrical engineering.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Abrahams, J. R.

Pridham, G. J.

Hiller, N.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Front Cover;1
2;Semiconductor Circuits: Theory, Design and Experiment;4
3;Copyright Page;5
4;Table of Contents;6
5;Introduction;7
6;Acknowledgements;9
7;PART I: Theory of Semiconductors;10
7.1;CHAPTER 1. Basic Physical Theory;12
7.1.1;1.1. The Atom;12
7.1.2;1.2. Electron Orbits;13
7.1.3;1.3. Types of Elements;15
7.1.4;1.4. Atomic Binding;16
7.1.5;1.5. Electron Energy Levels;18
7.1.6;1.6. Fermi Level;22
7.1.7;1.7. Energy Levels in Conductors;23
7.1.8;1.8. Hall Effect in Conductors;25
7.1.9;1.9. Contact Potential between Metals;26
7.1.10;1.10. Energy Levels in Insulators;26
7.1.11;1.11. Energy Levels in Intrinsic Semiconductors;27
7.1.12;1.12. Energy Levels in Extrinsic Semiconductors;30
7.1.13;Questions for Chapter 1;34
7.2;CHAPTER 2. Physics of Semiconductor Devices;35
7.2.1;2.1. The pn Junction;35
7.2.2;2.2. pn Junction with Zero Bias;37
7.2.3;2.3. pn Junction with Forward Bias;38
7.2.4;2.4. pn Junction with Reverse Bias;39
7.2.5;2.5. The Zener Diode;39
7.2.6;2.6. The Tunnel (Esaki) Diode;40
7.2.7;2.7. Metal–Semiconductor Diodes;43
7.2.8;2.8. The pnp Transistor;45
7.2.9;2.9. The npn Transistor;49
7.2.10;Questions for Chapter 2;49
7.3;CHAPTER 3. Construction and Characteristics of Transistors;51
7.3.1;3.1. Introduction;51
7.3.2;3.2. Preparation of Crystal;51
7.3.3;3.3. Alloying;53
7.3.4;3.4. Grown Junctions;54
7.3.5;3.5. Diffusion;56
7.3.6;3.6. Epitaxial and Planar Techniques;58
7.3.7;3.7. Encapsulation;60
7.3.8;3.8. D.C. Characteristics;61
7.3.9;3.9. Leakage Currents;64
7.3.10;3.10. Current Gain;65
7.3.11;3.11. Power Dissipation;67
7.3.12;Questions for Chapter 3;69
7.4;CHAPTER 4. Equivalent Circuits;70
7.4.1;4.1. Common Base, Low Frequency, Equivalent T Circuit;70
7.4.2;4.2. Common Base, High Frequency, Equivalent T Circuit;73
7.4.3;4.3. Common Emitter, Low Frequency, Equivalent T Circuit;75
7.4.4;4.4. Common Emitter, Hybrid p Equivalent Circuit;77
7.4.5;4.5. Common Collector Equivalent T Circuit;80
7.4.6;4.6. h Parameters;80
7.4.7;4.7. Relation between h and T Parameters;84
7.4.8;4.8. Z Parameters;86
7.4.9;4.9. Relation between Z and T Parameters;87
7.4.10;4.10. Y Parameters;87
7.4.11;4.11. Relation between Y and T Parameters;88
7.4.12;Questions for Chapter 4;90
8;PART II: Design of Circuits;92
8.1;CHAPTER 5. Rectifiers and Stabilizers;94
8.1.1;5.1. Semiconductor Diodes;94
8.1.2;5.2. Half-wave Rectifier;97
8.1.3;5.3. Full-wave Rectifier;99
8.1.4;5.4. Voltage Multipliers;101
8.1.5;5.5. Diode Voltmeters;103
8.1.6;5.6. Diode Stabilizer;104
8.1.7;5.7. Transistor–Diode Stabilizers;108
8.1.8;5.8. Stabilizer Design Example;112
8.1.9;5.9. The Silicon Controlled Rectifier;115
8.1.10;5.10. Applications of the Thyristor;118
8.1.11;Questions for Chapter 5;121
8.2;CHAPTER 6. Voltage Amplifiers;124
8.2.1;6.1. Basic Amplifier Circuits;124
8.2.2;6.2. D.C. Biasing and Stabilization;124
8.2.3;6.3. Feedback Resistor Stabilization;127
8.2.4;6.4. Base Resistor and Emitter Bias Stabilization;129
8.2.5;6.5. Potential Divider and Emitter Bias Stabilization;130
8.2.6;6.6. Analysis and Design of Circuits Using Load Lines;132
8.2.7;6.7. Analysis of Circuits Using the T Equivalent Circuit;137
8.2.8;6.8. Comparison of Transistor Circuits;143
8.2.9;6.9. R.C. Coupling of Transistor Stages;144
8.2.10;6.10. Drift Transistor;149
8.2.11;6.11. R.F. Amplifiers;150
8.2.12;6.12. D.C. Amplifiers;154
8.2.13;Questions for Chapter 6;158
8.3;CHAPTER 7. Power Amplifiers;161
8.3.1;7.1. Classification of Power Amplifiers;161
8.3.2;7.2. Class A Power Amplifier;162
8.3.3;7.3. Common Emitter Push-pull Amplifier;167
8.3.4;7.4. Design Example—Transformer-coupled Push-pull Amplifier;171
8.3.5;7.5. Transformer-less Audio Amplifiers;175
8.3.6;7.6. Servo System Amplifiers;178
8.3.7;7.7. Class C High Frequency Amplifiers;180
8.3.8;Questions for Chapter 7;183
8.4;CHAPTER 8. Oscillator Circuits;185
8.4.1;8.1. L.C. Feedback Oscillator;185
8.4.2;8.2. R.C. Oscillators;191
8.4.3;8.3. Negative Resistance Oscillators;196
8.4.4;8.4. Crystal Controlled Transistor Oscillators;200
8.4.5;8.5. Inverters and Converters;203
8.4.6;Questions for Chapter 8;208
8.5;CHAPTER 9. Pulse and Computing Circuits;212
8.5.1;9.1. Introduction;212
8.5.2;9.2. Astable Multivibrator;213
8.5.3;9.3. Monostable Multivibrator;215
8.5.4;9.4. Bistable Multivibrator;217
8.5.5;9.5. Binary and Decade Counters;219
8.5.6;9.6. Ring Counter with pnpn Transistors;222
8.5.7;9.7. Digital Computing Operations;224
8.5.8;9.8. Diode Gate Circuits;226
8.5.9;9.9. Transistor–Resistor Logic;229
8.5.10;9.10. All-transistor Switching;230
8.5.11;Questions for Chapter 9;232
8.6;CHAPTER 10. Photo-electric Applications;234
8.6.1;10.1. Types of Semiconductor Photocells;234
8.6.2;10.2. Photo-conductive Cells and Their Applications;235
8.6.3;10.3. Photo-diode Circuit;236
8.6.4;10.4. The Photo-transistor;238
8.6.5;10.5. Construction of Silicon Solar Cells;241
8.6.6;10.6. Electrical Properties of Solar Cells;243
8.6.7;Questions for Chapter 10;246
8.7;CHAPTER 11. Special Applications;247
8.7.1;11.1. Amplitude Modulation;247
8.7.2;11.2. Amplitude Demodulation;252
8.7.3;11.3. Frequency Modulation;256
8.7.4;11.4. Electronic Switching Circuits;262
8.7.5;11.5. Ferrite Core Driving Circuits;266
8.7.6;11.6. D.C. Motor Control;269
8.7.7;Questions for Chapter 11;273
9;PART .II: Experiments with Semiconductors;276
9.1;CHAPTER 12. Laboratory Demonstrations: Semiconductor Characteristics and Circuits;278
9.1.1;12.1. Comparison of Metal and Semiconductor Diodes;278
9.1.2;12.2. Transistor Characteristics;279
9.1.3;12.3. Characteristic of a Silicon Controlled Rectifier;283
9.1.4;12.4. Phase Control of a Silicon Controlled Rectifier;285
9.1.5;12.5. Characteristic of a Zener Diode;285
9.1.6;12.6. Stabilizing Action of a Zener Diode;287
9.1.7;12.7. Demonstration of Hall Effect;288
9.2;CHAPTER 13. Experiments with Semiconductor Circuits;290
9.2.1;13.1. Variation of Current Gain with Frequency and Emitter Current;290
9.2.2;13.2. Common Emitter Amplifier;293
9.2.3;13.3. The Emitter Follower;294
9.2.4;13.4. The Tuned Collector Oscillator;295
9.2.5;13.5. Transistor R.C. Oscillators;296
9.2.6;13.6. Multivibrator Circuits;297
9.2.7;13.7. A Semiconductor Modulator;299
9.3;CHAPTER 14. Design Experiments;301
9.3.1;14.1. Single-stage Audio Amplifier;301
9.3.2;14.2. Simple D.C. Stabilizer;302
9.3.3;14.3. Power Stabilizer Circuits;302
9.3.4;14.4. Frequency Modulation, with a Varactor;303
9.3.5;14.5. Semiconductor Gate Circuits;304
9.3.6;14.6. Push-pull Driver Amplifier Stage;304
10;Appendix A: Answers to Numerical Questions;306
11;Appendix B: References for Further Reading;308
12;Appendix C: Proof of µ = re/2rc (1–a0);311
13;Appendix D: Classification of Symbols;312
14;Index;316
15;SIGNAL FLOW ANALYSIS;320
16;ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS, TUBES AND TRANSISTORS;321

Leseproben

CHAPTER 1

Basic Physical Theory

Publisher Summary

This chapter discusses the basic physical theory. The understanding of semiconductor diodes, transistors, and many other solid state devices that have been developed in the past decade involves a deeper knowledge of the physical structure matter than is required with the well-established valve circuits. The position and shape of the electron orbits were derived by Bohr who applied Planck’s Quantum Theory to atomic structure. This theory states that the energy of a body can only change by definite units of energy known as quanta and by applying this idea to the production of light by gas discharge tubes Bohr showed that definite electron energy levels existed. The movement of electrons from a high energy level 1 to a low energy level 2 is accompanied by the radiation of energy according to the relation: 1–2 = , where = 6.624 × 10–34 J.sec, that is, quanta of energy = (Planck’s constant) × (frequency of radiation). This theory gave rise to the quantum numbers of electron orbits.

THE understanding of semiconductor diodes, transistors and the many other solid state devices that have been developed in the past decade involves a deeper knowledge of the physical structure matter than is required with the well-established valve circuits. In this chapter, the underlying physical principles will be developed and, in the next, applied to semiconductor devices.

1.1 The Atom

The atom of any element is the smallest particle of that element capable of taking part in a chemical reaction. It may be regarded as being composed of electrons moving in circular or elliptical orbits about a relatively heavy nucleus of protons and neutrons as shown in Fig. 1.1. This model of the atom was proposed by Bohr in 1913 and although it has been displaced by later models for many purposes it is a convenient representation to show the action of semiconductor devices.

FIG. 1.1 Structure of the atom.

Electrons have a mass of 9 × 10-31 kg and carry a charge of 1·6 × 10-19 C, while protons have an equal positive charge but a mass 1838 times as great. Neutrons are about the same mass as protons but carry no charge.

All atoms are about the same size, approximately 10-10 m in diameter, while the nucleus is about 10-15 m in diameter. The nuclei of the heavier elements provide a greater attractive force on the orbital electrons and constrict the electrons within approximately the same atomic volume. The atomic number of an element is decided by the number of protons in the nucleus while the atomic weight is governed by the number of protons and neutrons.

1.2 Electron Orbits

The position and shape of the electron orbits were derived by Bohr who applied Planck’s Quantum Theory to atomic structure. This theory states that the energy of a body can only change by definite units of energy known as quanta and by applying this idea to the production of light by gas discharge tubes Bohr showed that definite electron energy levels existed. The movement of electrons from a high energy level 1 to a low energy level 2 is accompanied by the radiation of energy according to the relation:

1-E2=h.f.,where h=6·624×10-34J-sec

i.e. Quanta of Energy = (Planck’s Constant) × (frequency of radiation).

This theory gave rise to the Quantum Numbers of electron orbits.

1. Principal Quantum Number (): For a single atom the electrons are arranged in shells of definite energy level where the electrostatic force of attraction is balanced by the centrifugal force on the electron. The principal quantum number () which has integer values gives the energy levels in these shells in arbitrary units. The value of these units depends on the element since the heavier elements with a greater positive charge on the nucleus give rise to a greater attractive force. That is, = 1 corresponds to the shell, = 2 the shell, etc. Thus a shell contains all the electrons with the same principal quantum number.

2. Subsidiary Quantum Number (): This is a measure of the eccentricity of the electron orbits and has a slight effect on the electron energy. It may have values of 0=-1 and corresponds to the subshells. That is, = 1, can only have one value 0, i.e. 1 subshell, 2, can have values 0 or 1, i.e. 2 subshells. Thus a subshell contains all the electrons with the same principal and subsidiary quantum numbers.

3. The Magnetic Quantum Number (): This is associated with the rotation of the electrons about the nucleus and has a slight effect on the energy and may have values -,

    i.e.

=0,m=0,l=1,m=-1,0 or 1,l=2,m=-2,-1,0,1 or 2.

4. The Spin Quantum Number (): This is associated with the rotation of the electron about its axis and may have two values ±2.

The application of Pauli’s Exclusion Principle which states that no two electrons may have the same four quantum numbers will now give the number of possible electron orbits.

=1,K shell,l=0,1s subshell,m=0,ms=±12,2 electrons.n=2,L shell,l=0,2s subshell,m=0,ms=±12,2 electrons. l=1,2psubshell,m=-1,0,1,ms=±12,6 electrons.n=3,M shell,l=0,3s subshell,m=0,ms=±12,2 electrons. l=1,3p subshell,m=-1,0,1,ms=±12,6 electrons. l=2,3d subshell,m=-2,-1,0,1,2ms=±12,10 electrons.n=4,N shell,l=0,4s subshell,m=0,ms=±12,2 electrons. l=1,4p subshell,m=-1,0,1ms=±12,6 electrons. l=2,4d subshell,m=-2,-1,0,1,2,ms=±12,10 electrons. l=3,4f subshell,m=-3,-2,-1,0,1,2,3,ms=±12,14 electrons.

This shows that the shell has two possible electron states, the shell 8, the shell 18 and the shell 32. The number of electron states in any shell is twice the square of the principal quantum number.

1.3 Types of Elements

Elements are classified according to the number of electrons in the outer orbits, the structure being such that there is a maximum of eight active electrons affecting the physical and chemical characteristics.

1. Group 0 elements have eight electrons in their outermost orbits with complete and subshells. This is the structure of the inert gases, and neon, with a complete shell and full and subshells within the shell is an example of this group. Helium, atomic No. 2, is also included in this group since it comprises the complete shell.

2. Group 1 elements have one electron in the subshell and this group includes the best conductors copper, silver and gold.

3. Group 2 elements have complete subshells.

4. Group 3 elements have three electrons in their outermost orbits and the elements which have complete subshells and one electron in the subshell are important as acceptor impurities added to pure semiconductors. The term acceptor impurity will be explained later in the chapter and such elements used are aluminium, gallium and indium.

5. Group 4 elements have four electrons in their outermost orbits and the ones with a complete subshell and two electrons in the subshell form the basic semiconductor materials. In practice carbon and tin are unsuitable for reasons explained later and the only suitable elements are germanium and silicon.

6. Group 5 elements have five electrons in their outermost orbits and the ones with complete subshells and three electrons in the subshell are important as donor impurities. The elements used are phosphorus, arsenic and antimony and as with group three elements their effect will be explained later in the chapter.

7. Group 6 elements have six electrons in their outermost orbits and are generally insulators.

8. Group 7 elements with seven electrons are one electron short of the inert gas structure.

9. Group 8 elements include those with pronounced individual properties such as the magnetic materials. They have one or two electrons in the outermost orbits with incomplete inner subshells.

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