Ashokkumar Theoretical and Experimental Sonochemistry Involving Inorganic Systems

1. Auflage 2010
ISBN: 978-90-481-3887-6
Verlag: Springer Netherlands
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 404 Seiten

Despite the fact that chemical applications of ultrasound are now widely acknowledged, a detailed presentation of inorganic systems covering nano-particles, catalysis, aqueous chemistry of metallic solutions and their redox characteristics, both from a theoretical and experimental perspective has eluded researchers of this field.Theoretical and Experimental Sonochemistry Involving Inorganic Systems fills this gap and presents a concise and thorough review of this fascinating area of Sonochemistry in a single volume.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Pankaj

Ashokkumar, Muthupandian

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Foreword;6
2;Preface;8
3;About the Editors;10
4;Acknowledgement;12
5;Contents;14
6;Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Acoustic Cavitation and Sonochemistry;16
6.1;1.1 Introduction;16
6.2;1.2 Acoustic Cavitation;17
6.2.1;1.2.1 Transient and Stable Cavitation;17
6.2.2;1.2.2 Nucleation of Bubbles;20
6.2.3;1.2.3 Growth of a Bubble;22
6.2.4;1.2.4 Radiation Forces on a Bubble (Primary and Secondary Bjerknes Forces);22
6.2.5;1.2.5 Bubble Radial Dynamics;24
6.2.6;1.2.6 Inertial Collapse (Rayleigh Collapse);26
6.3;1.3 Sonochemistry;28
6.3.1;1.3.1 Single-Bubble Sonochemistry;28
6.3.2;1.3.2 Optimal Bubble Temperature for Oxidant Production;29
6.3.3;1.3.3 Three Sites for Chemical Reactions;30
6.3.4;1.3.4 Size of Active Bubbles;31
6.3.5;1.3.5 Effect of a Surfactant;33
6.3.6;1.3.6 Nucleation of Particles by Ultrasound;34
6.3.7;1.3.7 Enhancement of Mass Transfer;34
6.4;1.4 Conventional Ultrasonic Reactors;35
6.4.1;1.4.1 Bath-type Reactor;35
6.4.2;1.4.2 Ultrasonic Horn;37
6.5;1.5 Bubble-Bubble Interaction;39
6.6;1.6 Conclusion;39
6.7;References;40
7;Chapter 2: Theory of Cavitation and Design Aspects of Cavitational Reactors;45
7.1;2.1 Introduction;45
7.2;2.2 Mechanism of Cavitational Effects for Chemical Processing;49
7.3;2.3 Design Aspects of Cavitational Reactors;51
7.3.1;2.3.1 Designs of Sonochemical Reactors;52
7.3.1.1;2.3.1.1 Probe Systems;52
7.3.1.2;2.3.1.2 Ultrasonic Baths;55
7.3.1.3;2.3.1.3 Flow Systems;56
7.3.2;2.3.2 Understanding Cavitational Activity Distribution;58
7.3.3;2.3.3 Design Related Information Based on Mapping Investigations;61
7.4;2.4 Optimization of Operating Parameters;64
7.4.1;2.4.1 Frequency of Ultrasound;65
7.4.2;2.4.2 Intensity of Irradiation;66
7.4.3;2.4.3 Geometrical Design of the Reactor;67
7.4.4;2.4.4 Liquid Phase Physicochemical Properties;68
7.4.5;2.4.5 Bulk Temperature of Liquid Medium;69
7.5;2.5 Intensification of Cavitational Activity in the Sonochemical Reactors;69
7.5.1;2.5.1 Use of Process Intensifying Parameters;70
7.5.1.1;2.5.1.1 Use of Gases;70
7.5.1.2;2.5.1.2 Use of Solid Particles;71
7.5.2;2.5.2 Use of Combination of Cavitation and Advanced Oxidation Processes;72
7.5.3;2.5.3 Combined Use of Microwave Irradiation and Sonochemistry;74
7.6;2.6 Qualitative Considerations for Reactor Choice, Scaleup and Optimization;75
7.7;2.7 Concluding Remarks;77
7.8;References;78
8;Chapter 3: Cavitation Generation and Usage Without Ultrasound: Hydrodynamic Cavitation;82
8.1;3.1 Introduction;82
8.2;3.2 Generation of Hydrodynamic Cavitation;84
8.3;3.3 Comparison with Acoustic Cavitation;85
8.4;3.4 Bubble Dynamics Analysis;87
8.5;3.5 Hydrodynamic Cavitation Reactor Configurations;90
8.5.1;3.5.1 High Pressure Homogenizer;91
8.5.2;3.5.2 High Speed Homogenizer;91
8.5.3;3.5.3 Low Pressure Hydrodynamic Cavitation Reactor;92
8.6;3.6 Guidelines for Selection of Hydrodynamic Cavitation Reactor Configurations;93
8.7;3.7 Overview of Applications of Hydrodynamic Cavitation;95
8.7.1;3.7.1 Chemical Synthesis;95
8.7.1.1;3.7.1.1 Hydrolysis of Fatty Oils;95
8.7.1.2;3.7.1.2 Depolymerization Reactions;96
8.7.1.3;3.7.1.3 Oxidation Reactions;96
8.7.1.4;3.7.1.4 Synthesis of Biodiesel;99
8.7.1.5;3.7.1.5 Synthesis of Rubber Nano-Suspensions;100
8.7.1.6;3.7.1.6 Synthesis of Nanosize Catalyst Particles;101
8.7.1.7;3.7.1.7 Synthesis Process for Pulp/Paper Production;102
8.7.2;3.7.2 Microbial Cell Disruption;102
8.7.3;3.7.3 Microbial Disinfection;105
8.7.4;3.7.4 Wastewater Treatment;108
8.7.5;3.7.5 Flotation;112
8.7.6;3.7.6 Miscellaneous Applications;114
8.7.6.1;3.7.6.1 Dental Water Irrigator Employing Hydrodynamic Cavitation;114
8.7.6.2;3.7.6.2 Preparation of Free Disperse System Using Liquid Hydrocarbons;114
8.8;3.8 Concluding Remarks;115
8.9;References;115
9;Chapter 4: Sonoelectrochemical Synthesis of Materials;120
9.1;4.1 Introduction;120
9.2;4.2 Experimental Systems;122
9.3;4.3 Inorganic Sonoelectrosynthesis;127
9.3.1;4.3.1 Gases;127
9.3.2;4.3.2 Hydrogen Peroxide;127
9.3.3;4.3.3 Colloidal Hydrous Metal Oxide Reductions;128
9.3.4;4.3.4 Metal Deposits;128
9.3.5;4.3.5 Metal Oxides Deposits and Other Derivatives;130
9.3.6;4.3.6 Nanomaterials;131
9.4;4.4 Influence of the Operational Variables;135
9.5;4.5 Benefits of the Ultrasound for the Electrochemical Processes;136
9.6;References;137
10;Chapter 5: Sonochemical Synthesis of Metal Nanoparticles;143
10.1;5.1 Introduction;143
10.2;5.2 Reduction Mechanism of Metal Ions in Aqueous Solution Under Ultrasonic Irradiation;145
10.3;5.3 Effects of Various Parameters on the Rates of Reduction of Metal Ions;146
10.3.1;5.3.1 Effect of Organic Additives on the Rate of Reduction;147
10.3.2;5.3.2 Effects of Ultrasound Intensity on the Rate of Reduction;149
10.3.3;5.3.3 Effects of Dissolved Gas on the Rate of Reduction;150
10.3.4;5.3.4 Effects of the Distance Between Reaction Vessel and Oscillator on the Rate of Reduction;151
10.3.5;5.3.5 Effects of Ultrasound Frequency on the Rate of Reduction;151
10.4;5.4 Effects of Various Parameters on the Properties of Metal Nanoparticles;153
10.4.1;5.4.1 Effects of the Rates of Reduction on the Size of the Formed Nanoparticles;153
10.4.2;5.4.2 Sonochemical Synthesis of Supported Metal Nanoparticles;155
10.4.3;5.4.3 Sonochemical Synthesis of Bimetallic Nanoparticles;157
10.4.4;5.4.4 Use of Templates for Controlling the Size of Sonochemically Formed Metal Particles;158
10.5;References;160
11;Chapter 6: Sonochemical Preparation of Monometallic, Bimetallic and Metal-Loaded Semiconductor Nanoparticles;163
11.1;6.1 Introduction;163
11.2;6.2 Monometallic Nanoparticles;165
11.3;6.3 Bimetallic Nanoparticles;169
11.4;6.4 Metal-Loaded Semiconductor Nanoparticles;173
11.5;6.5 Summary;177
11.6;References;177
12;Chapter 7: Acoustic and Hydrodynamic Cavitations for Nano CaCO3 Synthesis;182
12.1;7.1 Introduction;182
12.2;7.2 Theoretical Aspects: Crystallization and Sonocrystallization to Form Inorganic Nanoparticles;185
12.3;7.3 Cavitation Assisted Synthesis of Nano CaCO3;187
12.3.1;7.3.1 Effect of Ultrasound on CaCO3 Synthesis;187
12.3.2;7.3.2 In Situ Functionalization of Nano CaCO3 During Ultrasound Assisted Carbonation Process;190
12.3.3;7.3.3 Hydrodynamic Cavitation Approach for Synthesis of Nano CaCO3 Particles;194
12.4;7.4 Summary;198
12.5;References;198
13;Chapter 8: Sonochemical Synthesis of Oxides and Sulfides;201
13.1;8.1 Introduction;201
13.2;8.2 Formation Mechanism of Crystallinity Versus Amorphicity of Materials;202
13.3;8.3 Important Reaction Parameters for Sonochemical Reactions;203
13.4;8.4 Characteristics/Advantages with Ultrasonic System;203
13.5;8.5 Synthesis of Oxides by Ultrasound;203
13.5.1;8.5.1 ZnO;204
13.5.1.1;8.5.1.1 Ultrasound and Ionic Liquid;205
13.5.2;8.5.2 Fe2O3;207
13.5.3;8.5.3 MgO;208
13.5.4;8.5.4 PbO;208
13.5.5;8.5.5 PbO2;208
13.5.6;8.5.6 SnO and SnO2;209
13.5.7;8.5.7 Eu2O3;209
13.5.8;8.5.8 HgO;209
13.5.9;8.5.9 Silica;210
13.5.10;8.5.10 V2O5;210
13.5.11;8.5.11 TiO2;210
13.5.12;8.5.12 ZrO2;211
13.5.13;8.5.13 Other Mixed Metal Oxides;211
13.5.14;8.5.14 Ultrasound Assisted Techniques;212
13.5.14.1;8.5.14.1 Ultrasound and Microwave;212
13.5.14.2;8.5.14.2 Ultrasound and Photochemistry;213
13.5.14.3;8.5.14.3 Ultrasound and Electrochemistry (Sonoelectrochemistry);213
13.6;8.6 Sulfides;213
13.6.1;8.6.1 ZnS;214
13.6.2;8.6.2 CdS;214
13.6.3;8.6.3 CuS;215
13.6.4;8.6.4 PbS;216
13.6.5;8.6.5 MoS2;216
13.6.6;8.6.6 In2S3;217
13.6.7;8.6.7 Bi2S3;217
13.6.8;8.6.8 NbS2;217
13.6.9;8.6.9 AgBiS2;218
13.7;8.7 Conclusions;218
13.8;References;218
14;Chapter 9: Aqueous Inorganic Sonochemistry;222
14.1;9.1 Introduction;222
14.2;9.2 Chemical Effects of Ultrasound;224
14.2.1;9.2.1 Study of Chemical Reactions of Metal Ions in Water;230
14.2.2;9.2.2 Study of Monovalent Ions;231
14.2.2.1;9.2.2.1 Silver, Ag+;232
14.2.2.2;Mercurous ion, Hg2þ;234
14.2.3;9.2.3 Study of Divalent Ions;235
14.2.3.1;9.2.3.1 Lead, Pb2+;235
14.2.3.2;9.2.3.2 Mercury(II), Hg2+;237
14.2.3.3;9.2.3.3 Copper, Cu2+;239
14.2.3.3.1;Normal Reaction of Water with CuSO4 in Non-hydrolysed State;242
14.2.3.3.2;Reaction due to Ultrasound;242
14.2.3.3.3;Reaction After the Ultrasonic Source Was Stopped (Slowly Reverting to the Original Composition);243
14.2.3.4;9.2.3.4 Cadmium, Cd2+;244
14.2.3.5;9.2.3.5 Tin, Sn2+;245
14.2.3.6;9.2.3.6 Nickel, Ni2+;248
14.2.3.7;9.2.3.7 Zinc, Zn2+;251
14.2.3.8;9.2.3.8 Alkaline Earth Metals (Mg2+, Ca2+, Sr2+ and Ba2+);253
14.2.3.9;9.2.3.9 Platinum, Pt2+/4+;254
14.2.4;9.2.4 Study of Trivalent Ions;255
14.2.4.1;9.2.4.1 Arsenic, As3+;255
14.2.4.1.1;Removal of Arsenic Using a Coagulant;256
14.2.4.2;9.2.4.2 Bismuth, Bi3+;258
14.2.4.3;9.2.4.3 Antimony, Sb3+;260
14.2.4.4;9.2.4.4 Aluminium, Al3+;262
14.2.4.5;9.2.4.5 Gold, Au3+;265
14.2.5;9.2.5 Hardness Mitigation and Bacterial Decay;267
14.2.6;9.2.6 Ultrasound Initiated Crystallization;268
14.3;References;271
15;Chapter 10: Sonochemical Study on Multivalent Cations (Fe, Cr, and Mn);281
15.1;10.1 Introduction;281
15.2;10.2 Experimental;285
15.2.1;10.2.1 Iron, Fe;285
15.2.1.1;10.2.1.1 Reduction of Fe3+ to Fe2+;285
15.2.1.2;10.2.1.2 Oxidation of Fe2+ to Fe3+;286
15.2.1.3;10.2.1.3 Decomposition of [Fe(SCN)6]3- complex;286
15.2.1.4;10.2.1.4 Oxidation of Cl- and SCN-;287
15.2.2;10.2.2 Chromium (Cr);288
15.2.3;10.2.3 Chromium and Manganese;290
15.3;10.3 Conclusion;292
15.4;References;292
16;Chapter 11: Sonochemical Degradation of Phenol in the Presence of Inorganic Catalytic Materials;294
16.1;11.1 Introduction;294
16.2;11.2 Remediation Methods of Phenol;296
16.2.1;11.2.1 Sonochemical Methods;296
16.3;11.3 Experimental;303
16.3.1;11.3.1 Synthesis of Catalyst;303
16.3.2;11.3.2 Sonophotocatalytic Degradation of Phenol;305
16.4;11.4 Mechanism;313
16.5;References;314
17;Chapter 12: Sonophotocatalytic Degradation of Amines in Water;321
17.1;12.1 Introduction;321
17.2;12.2 Remediation Methods;323
17.3;12.3 Degradation of Amines;326
17.3.1;12.3.1 Ethyl Amine (EA);326
17.3.2;12.3.2 Aniline (A);327
17.3.3;12.3.3 Diphenylamine (DPA) and Naphthyl Amine (NA);328
17.3.4;12.3.4 Effect of La, Pr, Nd, Sm and Gd ions;331
17.3.5;12.3.5 Mechanism;332
17.4;References;335
18;Chapter 13: Sonoluminescence of Inorganic Ions in Aqueous Solutions;343
18.1;13.1 Introduction;343
18.2;13.2 Experimental System;345
18.3;13.3 The Site of Emission;347
18.4;13.4 Transfer of Metal Species into Bubbles;354
18.5;13.5 Alkali-Metal Atom Emission and Continuum Emission;355
18.6;13.6 Conclusions;359
18.7;References;360
19;Chapter 14: The Role of Salts in Acoustic Cavitation and the Use of Inorganic Complexes as Cavitation Probes;362
19.1;14.1 The Use of Inorganic Complexes to Probe the Conditions of Cavitation;362
19.2;14.2 The Effect of Simple Electrolytes and Gas Type on Cavitation and Sonoluminescence;369
19.3;14.3 Conclusions;381
19.4;References;382
20;Chapter 15: Introductory Experiments in Sonochemistry and Sonoluminescence;385
20.1;15.1 Introduction;385
20.1.1;15.1.1 Experiment;387
20.1.2;15.1.2 Experiment;387
20.1.3;15.1.3 Experiment;388
20.1.4;15.1.4 Experiment;389
20.1.4.1;15.1.4.1 Synthesis of Benzanilide;389
20.1.4.2;15.1.4.2 Synthesis of Phenylbenzoate;390
20.1.4.3;15.1.4.3 Synthesis of Bromoderative of Phenol;390
20.1.4.4;15.1.4.4 Synthesis of Acetanilide;390
20.1.4.5;15.1.4.5 Synthesis of Aspirin;391
20.1.4.6;15.1.4.6 Synthesis of Anthranilic Acid;391
20.1.4.7;15.1.4.7 Synthesis of Benzamide;392
20.1.5;15.1.5 Experiment;392
20.1.6;15.1.6 Experiment;393
20.1.7;15.1.7 Experiment;393
20.1.8;15.1.8 Experiment;394
21;Index;399