Ashraf / Ozturk Plant Adaptation and Phytoremediation

1. Auflage 2010
ISBN: 978-90-481-9370-7
Verlag: Springer-Verlag
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: Adobe DRM (»Systemvoraussetzungen)

E-Book, Englisch, 481 Seiten

The problems engendered by the conflicting imperatives of development and ecology show no sign of ending, and every day more locations are added to the list of landscapes poisoned by human activity. This vital book, featuring an international set of authors, is a key reference for researchers and environmental managers, as well as anyone involved in the mining industry or landscape remediation. The comprehensive coverage of current approaches to phytoremediation begins by examining the problem. It looks at natural and human-induced toxins, and their effects on natural vegetation as well as agricultural crops. Particular attention is paid to the two largest challenges to remediation – heavy metals, and the salt stress that is impeding agricultural productivity worldwide. The text moves on to focus on the efficacy of different plant species in removing toxic pollutants from the environment. Along with analysis of a number of case studies, this section includes new and updated information on the mechanism of toxin-tolerance in plants.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Ashraf, M.

Ozturk, M.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Contents;5
2;Contributors;7
3;1 Toxins and Their Phytoremediation;11
3.1;1 Introduction;12
3.2;2 Toxins and Their Types;13
3.2.1;2.1 Salts;14
3.2.2;2.2 Heavy Metals;16
3.2.3;2.3 Herbicides and Pesticides;17
3.2.4;2.4 Cyanides;18
3.2.5;2.5 Toxic Explosives;19
3.3;3 Plant Resistance to Toxins;20
3.3.1;3.1 Salts;20
3.3.2;3.2 Heavy Metals;21
3.3.3;3.3 Herbicides and Pesticides;22
3.3.4;3.4 Cyanides;23
3.3.5;3.5 Toxic Explosives;24
3.4;4 Phytoremediation of Toxins;24
3.5;5 Conclusion;30
3.6;References;32
4;Part I Toxins and Resistance Mechanisms;43
4.1;2 Molecular Mechanisms and Genetic Basis of Heavy Metal Toxicity and Tolerance in Plants;44
4.1.1;1 Introduction;45
4.1.2;2 Heavy Metal Toxicity;46
4.1.3;3 Heavy Metal Tolerance;53
4.1.4;4 Localization and Distribution of Heavy Metals and Their Transport in the Plants;54
4.1.4.1;4.1 Amino Acids and Organic Acids;56
4.1.4.2;4.2 Phytochelatins (PCs);57
4.1.4.3;4.3 Metallothioneins (MTs);58
4.1.4.4;4.4 Heat Shock Proteins (HSPs);58
4.1.4.5;4.5 Other Metal-Binding Proteins;59
4.1.5;5 Molecular Mechanism of Heavy Metal Accumulation in Plants;60
4.1.6;6 Conclusion;64
4.1.7;References;64
4.2;3 Biomonitoring of Heavy Metal Pollution Using Lichen (Pseudevernia furfuracea (L.) Zopf.) Exposed in Bags in a Semi-arid Region, Turkey;68
4.2.1;1 Introduction;69
4.2.2;2 Material and Methods;70
4.2.2.1;2.1 Study Area;70
4.2.2.2;2.2 Lichen Sampling and Bag Preparation;70
4.2.2.3;2.3 Sample Collection;71
4.2.2.4;2.4 Sample Preparation and Chemical Analyses;72
4.2.2.5;2.5 Results and Discussion;73
4.2.3;References;78
4.3;4 Heavy Metal Toxicity in Plants;80
4.3.1;1 Introduction;81
4.3.2;2 Origin and Occurrence;82
4.3.3;3 Mobility, Uptake and Accumulation of Heavy Metals;83
4.3.4;4 Mechanism of Metal Tolerance;85
4.3.5;5 Effect on Growth and Development;86
4.3.5.1;5.1 Germination;87
4.3.5.2;5.2 Root;87
4.3.5.3;5.3 Stem;88
4.3.5.4;5.4 Leaf;89
4.3.5.5;5.5 Dry Biomass;89
4.3.6;6 Effect on Plant Physiology;90
4.3.6.1;6.1 Photosynthesis;90
4.3.6.2;6.2 Water Relation;92
4.3.6.3;6.3 Essential Nutrients;93
4.3.7;7 Effect on Enzymes and Other Compounds;94
4.3.7.1;7.1 Root Fe(III) Reductase;95
4.3.7.2;7.2 Nitrate Reductase;95
4.3.7.3;7.3 Antioxidant Enzymes;95
4.3.8;8 Conclusion;96
4.3.9;References;97
4.4;5 Mechanism of Free Radical Scavenging and Roleof Phytohormones in Plants Under Abiotic Stresses;107
4.4.1;1 Introduction;108
4.4.2;2 ROS Production;109
4.4.3;3 Enzymatic Antioxidants;110
4.4.3.1;3.1 Superoxide Dismutase (SOD; EC 1.15.1.1);110
4.4.3.2;3.2 Catalases (EC 1.11.1.6);111
4.4.3.3;3.3 Ascorbate Peroxidase (APX, EC 1.11.1.1);112
4.4.3.4;3.4 Glutathione Reductase (GR, EC 1.6.4.2);113
4.4.4;4 Non-enzymatic Antioxidants;113
4.4.4.1;4.1 Ascorbic Acid (Vitamin C);113
4.4.4.2;4.2 Vitamin E (-Tocopherols);114
4.4.4.3;4.3 Glutathione (GSH);115
4.4.5;5 Phytohormones;116
4.4.5.1;5.1 Brassinosteroids (BRs);116
4.4.5.2;5.2 Ethylene (C2H4);117
4.4.6;6 Conclusion;119
4.4.7;7 Future Perspective;120
4.4.8;References;120
4.5;6 The Role of Arbuscualr Mycorrhizae in Inducing Resistance to Drought and Salinity Stress in Crops;127
4.5.1;1 Introduction;128
4.5.2;2 Arbuscular Mycorrhiza and Environmental Stresses;129
4.5.3;3 Arbuscular Mycorrhiza and Abiotic Stresses;130
4.5.3.1;3.1 Drought Stress;132
4.5.3.1.1;3.1.1 Morphological and Anatomical Effects;134
4.5.3.1.2;3.1.2 Metabolic Effects;134
4.5.3.1.3;3.1.3 Drought Resistance;134
4.5.3.1.4;3.1.4 Mycorrhiza and Plant Water Relations;134
4.5.3.1.5;3.1.5 Mycorrhiza and Soil Water Relations;137
4.5.3.1.6;3.1.6 Molecular Basis for Drought Resistance;137
4.5.3.2;3.2 Nutrient Stress;138
4.5.3.3;3.3 Salinity Stress;139
4.5.3.4;3.4 Heavy Metal Stress;142
4.5.4;4 Conclusion;143
4.5.5;References;143
4.6;7 Predicting Growth, Carbon Sequestration and Salinity Impacts of Forestry Plantations;150
4.6.1;1 Introduction;151
4.6.2;2 Materials and Methods;152
4.6.3;3 Results and Discussion;153
4.6.4;4 Conclusions;155
4.6.5;References;155
4.7;8 Structural and Functional Adaptations in Plantsfor Salinity Tolerance;157
4.7.1;1 Introduction;158
4.7.2;2 Adaptive Components of Salt Tolerance;159
4.7.2.1;2.1 Morphological Traits;161
4.7.2.2;2.2 Anatomical Traits;162
4.7.2.2.1;2.2.1 Succulence;168
4.7.2.2.2;2.2.2 Salt Excretion;168
4.7.2.3;2.3 Physiological/Biochemical Traits;169
4.7.2.3.1;2.3.1 Osmotic Adjustment;170
4.7.2.3.2;2.3.2 Ion Selectivity;170
4.7.2.3.3;2.3.3 Salt Exclusion;171
4.7.2.3.4;2.3.4 Intracellular Ion Compartmentation;171
4.7.2.3.5;2.3.5 Stomatal Responses;171
4.7.3;3 Conclusion;172
4.7.4;References;172
5;Part II Phytoremediation;177
5.1;9 Plant Resistance to Anthropogenic Toxicants: Approaches to Phytoremediation;178
5.1.1;1 Introduction;179
5.1.2;2 Environmental Contaminants;180
5.1.2.1;2.1 Toxic Heavy Metals;180
5.1.2.2;2.2 Petroleum Hydrocarbons;182
5.1.3;3 Mechanisms of Plant Resistance to Toxicants;184
5.1.4;4 Mechanisms of Uptake and Translocation of Contaminants in Plants;187
5.1.5;5 Phytoremediation of Polluted Soils;189
5.1.6;6 Conclusion;191
5.1.7;References;191
5.2;10 Biochemical and Molecular Aspects in Phytoremediation of Selenium;198
5.2.1;1 Introduction;200
5.2.2;2 Physiology;202
5.2.2.1;2.1 Types of Se Accumulator Plants;202
5.2.2.2;2.2 Se Toxicity and Tolerance;204
5.2.2.3;2.3 Se Uptake and Transport;210
5.2.2.4;2.4 Se Interaction with Other Salts;211
5.2.3;3 Biochemistry;212
5.2.3.1;3.1 Se as an Essential Element;212
5.2.3.2;3.2 Se Assimilation;213
5.2.3.3;3.3 Incorporation of Se into Protein;214
5.2.3.4;3.4 Localisation of Se Pathways;214
5.2.4;4 Molecular Biology;216
5.2.4.1;4.1 Sulphate Transporters;216
5.2.4.2;4.2 Genetic Code and Se Proteins;217
5.2.4.3;4.3 Key Enzyme Genes;217
5.2.4.4;4.4 Methylation and Volatilisation;220
5.2.5;5 Phytovolatilisation;220
5.2.5.1;5.1 Se Volatilisation;220
5.2.5.2;5.2 Variation Amongst Plants;220
5.2.5.3;5.3 Plant/Microbe Interactions;221
5.2.5.4;5.4 Environmental Factors;221
5.2.6;6 Phytoremediation;222
5.2.6.1;6.1 Process;222
5.2.6.2;6.2 Plant Species;222
5.2.6.3;6.3 Para-Phytoremediation;223
5.2.6.4;6.4 Problems;224
5.2.7;7 Conclusions/Future Directions;224
5.2.8;References;225
5.3;11 Perspective on Phytoremediation for Improving Heavy Metal-Contaminated Soils;232
5.3.1;1 Introduction;233
5.3.2;2 Understanding Mechanisms of Phytoremediation for Improving Heavy Metal Contaminated Soils;234
5.3.2.1;2.1 Heavy Metal Accumulation in Plants;234
5.3.2.2;2.2 Genes Involved in Heavy Metal Perception and Signal Transduction;235
5.3.2.2.1;2.2.1 Heavy Metal Sensors;235
5.3.2.2.2;2.2.2 Signaling Involved in Calcium, Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS) and Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases (MAPK);236
5.3.2.2.3;2.2.3 Phytohormone Signaling;236
5.3.2.2.4;2.2.4 Heavy Metal -- Induced Transcription Factors and Heavy Metal Responsive Elements;237
5.3.2.2.5;2.2.5 Phospholipid Signaling;238
5.3.2.2.6;2.2.6 Posttranscriptional Regulation of Heavy Metal-Dependent Genes By MicoRNAs;238
5.3.3;3 Important Standards for Heavy Metal Hyperaccumulator Plants;240
5.3.4;4 Biotechnology and Phytoremediation of Heavy Metal Contaminated Soils;241
5.3.5;5 Conclusion;245
5.3.6;References;246
5.4;12 The Structural and Functional Characteristics of Asiatic Desert Halophytes for Phytostabilization of Polluted Sites;250
5.4.1;1 Introduction;251
5.4.2;2 Physico-Chemical Characteristics of the Soils;253
5.4.3;3 Translocation and Cellular Mechanism Involved in the Phytoremediation of Trace Elements;254
5.4.4;4 Salt Accumulation, Silicification, and Wax Deposition Associated With Epidermal Structures of Flower;258
5.4.5;5 Diversity in Trichomes, Hairs and Salt Glands (SEM);264
5.4.6;6 Stomatal Diversity;268
5.4.7;7 Conclusion;272
5.4.8;References;275
5.5;13 Boron and Plants;280
5.5.1;1 Introduction;281
5.5.2;2 Boron Production and Usage;282
5.5.3;3 Boron and Living Beings;283
5.5.4;4 Boron and Plants;283
5.5.4.1;4.1 Boron Tolerance, Deficiency and Toxicity in Plants;285
5.5.4.2;4.2 Boron Uptake By Plants;288
5.5.4.3;4.3 Molecular Basis of Boron Uptake and Transport;289
5.5.4.4;4.4 Boron Remobilization;291
5.5.5;5 Boron Pollution;292
5.5.6;6 Phytoremediation;296
5.5.7;7 Boron and Seed Germination;298
5.5.8;8 Boron and Genotoxicity in Plants;302
5.5.9;9 Conclusion;306
5.5.10;References;310
5.6;14 Potential for the Use of Rhizobacteria in the Sustainable Management of Contaminated Soils;317
5.6.1;1 Introduction;318
5.6.2;2 Fate of Contaminants in the Rhizosphere;320
5.6.3;3 The Interactions Among Bacteria and Organic and Inorganic Pollutants;321
5.6.4;4 Rhizospheric Microbial Populations;324
5.6.5;5 Methods for Assessing and Monitoring Rhizospheric Bacteria;325
5.6.6;6 PGPR with ACC Deaminase Activity;328
5.6.7;7 Plant Tolerance to Toxic Compounds and Transgenic Plants with Detoxification Genes;329
5.6.8;8 Strategies for Enhancing Phytoremediation;331
5.6.9;9 Conclusions;332
5.6.10;References;333
5.7;15 Phytoremediation of Saline Soils for Sustainable Agricultural Productivity;339
5.7.1;1 Introduction;340
5.7.2;2 Changes in Soil Physical Characteristics;342
5.7.3;3 Changes in Soil Chemical Characteristics;346
5.7.4;4 Removal of Salts from Soil;349
5.7.5;5 Improvement in Soil Fertility;352
5.7.6;6 Selection of Plants for Phytoremediation;353
5.7.7;7 Conclusion;356
5.7.8;References;356
5.8;16 Salts as Potential Environmental Pollutants, Their Types, Effects on Plants and Approaches for Their Phytoremediation;360
5.8.1;1 Introduction;361
5.8.2;2 Soil Salinity;361
5.8.3;3 Salt Types and Reasons;362
5.8.4;4 Effects of Soil Salinity on Plant Growth;363
5.8.4.1;4.1 Effects of Salt Stress on Cell Membranes;367
5.8.4.2;4.2 The Role of Proline Accumulation Under Salt Stress;368
5.8.5;5 Mechanism of Salt Tolerance;369
5.8.5.1;5.1 In Vitro Selection for Salt Tolerance;370
5.8.5.2;5.2 Mechanism of Salt Tolerance in Glycophytes and Halophytes;371
5.8.6;6 Phytoremediation Strategies for Overcoming Salinity Problems and Use of Halophytes as Companion Plants;373
5.8.7;7 Conclusion;376
5.8.8;References;376
5.9;17 Phytoremediation of Toxic Explosives;385
5.9.1;1 Introduction;386
5.9.2;2 Explosives as Pollutants;388
5.9.3;3 Phytoremediation: Detoxification of Explosives by Plants;390
5.9.4;4 Bacterial Genes Involved in Phytoremediation of Explosives;392
5.9.5;5 Transgenic Plants for Phytoremediation of Explosive Compounds;394
5.9.6;6 Conclusions;395
5.9.7;References;396
5.10;18 Phytoremediation of Cyanide;400
5.10.1;1 Cyanide as a Pollutant;401
5.10.1.1;1.1 Physical and Chemical Forms of Cyanide;402
5.10.1.2;1.2 Industrial and Natural Sources of Cyanide;403
5.10.1.3;1.3 Cyanide in Water and Soil;404
5.10.2;2 Cyanide Detoxification;405
5.10.2.1;2.1 Mechanical Processing of Cyanide Waste;405
5.10.2.2;2.2 Phytoremediation;406
5.10.2.3;2.3 Phytoremediation -- Case Studies;407
5.10.3;3 Uptake and Transport of Cyanide By Plants;409
5.10.3.1;3.1 Factors Affecting Uptake and Transport;411
5.10.4;4 Cyanide Assimilation and Metabolism;412
5.10.5;5 Genetic Diversity for Cyanide Assimilation in Plants;416
5.10.6;6 Cyanide Phytoremediation Technologies;416
5.10.7;7 Genomics and Proteomics of Cyanide Assimilation in Plants;417
5.10.7.1;7.1 -cyanoalanine Synthase (EC 4.4.1.9);417
5.10.7.2;7.2 Rhodanese (EC 2.8.1.1);418
5.10.7.3;7.3 Formamide Hydrolyase (FHL3- EC 4.2.1.66);419
5.10.7.4;7.4 Cyanide Dihydratase (CynD);419
5.10.8;8 Transgenics for Cyanide Remedy;420
5.10.9;9 Conclusion;421
5.10.10;References;421
5.11;19 Herbicides and Pesticides as Potential Pollutants: A GlobalProblem;428
5.11.1;1 Introduction;429
5.11.2;2 The Active Ingredients of Herbicides and Pesticides;430
5.11.3;3 Adverse Effects of Herbicides and Pesticides on Ecosystem;431
5.11.3.1;3.1 Effects on Structure and Functions of Ecosystem;431
5.11.3.2;3.2 Risks for the Species;432
5.11.3.3;3.3 Pollution Levels in Plants and Animals;433
5.11.4;4 Effects of Herbicides and Pesticides on Soil and Microbes;434
5.11.4.1;4.1 Structure of Soil;434
5.11.4.2;4.2 Herbicides and Pesticide Pollution on Microbial Activities;435
5.11.4.3;4.3 Persistence in Soil;436
5.11.5;5 Effects of Herbicides and Pesticides on Environment;437
5.11.5.1;5.1 Environmental Fate of Herbicides and Pesticides;437
5.11.5.2;5.2 Effects of Herbicides and Pesticides on Aquatic Life;438
5.11.5.3;5.3 Effects on Surface and Ground Water Quality in Agricultural Areas;439
5.11.6;6 Pest Resistance to Herbicides and Pesticides;440
5.11.7;7 Effects on Human Health;440
5.11.8;8 Integrated Weed Management System;442
5.11.9;9 Benefits vs Risks to Use Herbicides and Pesticides;443
5.11.10;10 Phytoremediation of Herbicides and Pesticides;444
5.11.11;11 Conclusion;444
5.11.12;References;445
6;Index;449