Baker The Water Environment of Cities

1. Auflage 2009
ISBN: 978-0-387-84891-4
Verlag: Springer
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 375 Seiten

The concept for the Water Environment of Cities arose from a workshop 'Green 1 Cities, Blue Waters' workshop held in 2006. The workshop assembled experts from engineering, planning, economics, law, hydrology, aquatic ecology, geom- phology, and other disciplines to present research ?ndings and identify key new ideas on the urban water environment. At a lunch discussion near the end of the workshop, several of us came to the recognition that despite having considerable expertise in a narrow discipline, none of us had a vision of the 'urban water en- ronment' as a whole. We were, as in the parable, blind men at opposite ends of the elephant, knowinga great deal about the parts, but notunderstandingthe whole. We quickly recognized the need to develop a book that would integrate this knowledge to create this vision. The goal was to develop a book that could be used to teach a complete, multidisciplinary course, 'The Urban Water Environment', but could also be used as a supplemental text for courses on urban ecosystems, urban design, landscapearchitecture,water policy,waterqualitymanagement andwatershed m- agement. The book is also valuable as a reference source for water professionals stepping outside their arena of disciplinary expertise. The Water Environment of Cities is the ?rst book to use a holistic, interdis- plinary approach to examine the urban water environment. We have attempted to portrayaholisticvisionbuiltaround theconcept of water as a coreelement ofcities. Water has multipleroles:municipalwatersupply,aquatichabitat,landscapeaesth- ics, and recreation. Increasingly, urban water is reused, serving multiple purposes.

Dr. Baker is a Senior Fellow in the Minnesota Water Resources Center and owner of WaterThink, LLC, a consulting firm specializing in innovative approaches to water quality management. He had been on the faculty of the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Arizona State University and served as Technical Director for a national synthesis of surface water acidification at EPA's Corvallis EPA laboratory. His research examines water in human ecosystems, at scales from households to urban regions, with the goal of developing novel approaches for reducing pollution that are more effective, cheaper and fairer than conventional approaches. He has published more than 100 technical papers, edited one book, Environmental Chemistry of Lakes and Reservoirs, and is on the editorial board of the journal Urban Ecosystems. In addition to technical articles, he frequently writes columns for the Minneapolis Star and Tribune, The Minnesota Journal, and several practitioner magazines. His is currently working on a trade book, The End of Pollution. He has served on a number of environmental science and policy synthesis projects at the national scale and in Minnesota and Arizona. Chapter authors include Robert W. Adler, Associate Dean for Academic Affairs and James I. Farr Chair and Professor at the University of Utah, S.J. Quinney College of Law; Cliff Aichinger, Administrator for the Ramsey-Washington Metro Watershed District in St. Paul; Brian Bledsoe, Associate Professor in the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Colorado State University; Derek Booth, President and Senior Geologist at Stillwater Sciences, Inc. and an Adjunct Professor of Civil Engineering and Earth & Space Sciences at the University of Washington; John Crittenden, the Richard Snell Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Arizona State University; K. William Easter, Professor in Applied Economics at the University of Minnesota and former Director of the Center for International Food and Agricultural Policy; Kristina Hill, Professor of Landscape Architecture and Urban Design at the University of Virginia; Jim Holway, Associate Director of the Global Institute of Sustainability at Arizona State University and formerly, Assistant Director of the Arizona Department of Water Resources; Ingrid E. Schneider, Professor in the Department of Forest Resources at the University of Minnesota and Director of the University of Minnesota's Tourism Center; Peter Shanahan, Senior Lecturer in the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at MIT; Claire Welty, Director of the Center for Urban Environmental Research and Education and Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering at University of Maryland, Baltimore County; and Paul Westerhoff, Professor and Chair of the Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Arizona State University.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Baker, Lawrence A.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;to 1 Introduction;15
1.1;1.1 The Water Environment of Cities;15
1.2;1.2 A Brief History of the Urban Water Environment;18
1.2.1;1.2.1 Advent of the Industrial City;18
1.2.2;1.2.2 Evolution of Modern Water and Sewage Works: The London Experience;19
1.2.3;1.2.3 Urbanization and Water in the Eastern United States;20
1.2.4;1.2.4 Energy and Water Transportation;22
1.2.5;1.2.5 Water and Urbanization in the Arid Southwest;23
1.2.6;1.2.6 Flooding;24
1.3;1.3 Summary;25
1.4;1.4 Looking Forward;25
1.4.1;1.4.1 The Magnitude of the Problem;26
1.4.2;1.4.2 Cause for Hope;27
1.4.3;1.4.3 Cross-Cutting Themes;27
1.5;1.5 Chapter Topics;28
2;to 2 The Urban Water Budget;31
2.1;2.1 Basic Concepts;31
2.2;2.2 Box 2.1 Example Water Budget Calculation;33
2.3;2.2 Impacts of Urbanization on the Water Cycle;35
2.4;2.3 Effects of New Approaches to Water Management on the Water Cycle;39
2.5;2.4 Future Directions;39
3;to 3 Groundwater in the Urban Environment;43
3.1;3.1 Introduction to Groundwater;43
3.1.1;3.1.1 Groundwater Flow;45
3.1.2;3.1.2 Groundwater Supply;48
3.1.3;3.1.3 Groundwater Quality;49
3.1.4;3.1.4 Additional Reading;50
3.2;3.2 Groundwater in Cities;50
3.2.1;3.2.1 Phases in the Relationship Between a City and Its Groundwater;50
3.2.2;3.2.2 Cities and Groundwater Quality;56
3.2.3;3.2.3 Analysis of Urban Groundwater;56
3.2.4;3.2.4 Managing Urban Groundwater;58
4;to 4 Urban Infrastructure and Use of Mass Balance Models for Water and Salt;63
4.1;4.1 Introduction;63
4.2;4.2 Urban Water Infrastructure Components;64
4.2.1;4.2.1 Water Supply;64
4.2.2;4.2.2 Sewage Collection and Treatment;71
4.2.3;4.2.3 Stormwater Collection;72
4.3;4.3 Case Study of Modern Integrated Urban water Modeling;74
4.3.1;4.3.1 Modeling Approach;74
4.3.2;4.3.2 Water Quantity Mass Balance Modeling;77
4.3.3;4.3.3 Water Quality Modeling: Salt Mass Balance;78
4.3.4;4.3.4 Using Integrated Water Models for Urban Cities;80
4.4;4.4 Summary;81
5;to 5 New Concepts for Managing Urban Pollution;83
5.1;5.1 Introduction;83
5.1.1;5.1.1 Chapter Goals;83
5.2;5.2 Limitations to End-of-Pipe Pollution Control;84
5.2.1;5.2.1 Success at Treating Point Sources of Pollution;84
5.2.2;5.2.2 The Nonpoint Source Problem;86
5.3;5.3 Materials Flow Analysis for Cities;87
5.3.1;5.3.1 The Basics;88
5.3.2;5.3.2 Data Sources;91
5.3.3;5.3.3 System Boundaries;91
5.3.4;5.3.4 Scales of Analysis;91
5.3.5;5.3.5 Indirect Fluxes;93
5.3.6;5.3.6 Prior Studies;93
5.4;5.4 The Human Element;93
5.5;5.5 Adaptive Management;95
5.6;5.6 Applications;96
5.6.1;5.6.1 Case Study 1: Urban Lawns and P Pollution;96
5.6.2;5.6.2 Case Study 2: Using MFA to Devise Improved Lead Reduction Strategy;98
5.6.3;5.6.3 Case Study 3: Managing Road Salt with Adaptive Management;100
5.7;5.7 Summary;101
6;to 6 Streams and Urbanization;106
6.1;6.1 Introduction and ParadigmsHow Do Streams Work?;106
6.1.1;6.1.1 Channel Form;106
6.1.2;6.1.2 Water Discharge;109
6.1.3;6.1.3 Sediment Transport;110
6.1.4;6.1.4 Floodplains;111
6.1.5;6.1.5 Water Chemistry;112
6.1.6;6.1.6 Biota;112
6.1.7;6.1.7 Social Amenities of Urban Streams;112
6.2;6.2 How Development Affects Stream Processes;113
6.2.1;6.2.1 Hydrologic Effects;113
6.2.2;6.2.2 Geomorphic Effects of Urbanization;115
6.2.3;6.2.3 Chemical Effects;117
6.2.4;6.2.4 Ecological Implications;118
6.3;6.3 Management Principles;119
6.3.1;6.3.1 Hydrologic Alteration Is Profound; Hydrologic Mitigation Is Critical;120
6.3.2;6.3.2 Hydrologic Mitigation Must Reflect both Geomorphic and Ecological Principles;123
6.3.3;6.3.3 Protecting Riparian Zones Provides Synergistic Benefits;123
6.3.4;6.3.4 Goals, Objectives, and Evaluation Are Needed for Successful Urban-Stream Enhancement;124
6.4;6.4 Technical Approaches to Urban Stream Enhancement;125
6.4.1;6.4.1 Hydrology and Geomorphology;125
6.4.2;6.4.2 Riparian-Zone Conservation and Restoration;126
6.4.3;6.4.3 Low Impact Development and Land-Use Planning;126
6.5;6.5 Next Steps;128
6.5.1;6.5.1 Rivers and Streams Are Focal Points for Urban Renewal: These Are Systems Worth Restoring;128
6.5.2;6.5.2 Define Realistic Goals for Urban-Stream Restoration;129
6.5.3;6.5.3 Climate Change and the Uncertain Coupling Between Human and Environmental Systems;130
6.5.4;6.5.4 Lessons from Prior Efforts, Guidelines for the Future;131
7;to 7 Urban Water Recreation: Experiences, Place Meanings, and Future Issues;137
7.1;7.1 Introduction;137
7.2;7.2 Recreation Benefits;138
7.3;7.3 Place Meanings;141
7.4;7.4 Future Considerations;142
7.5;7.5 Sidebar 1 Diversifying Population: Cuyahoga Valley National Park (Floyd and Nicholas, 2008);143
7.6;7.5 Sidebar 2 Telling River Stories: A Program Highlighting Distinctive Urban Water-Oriented Recreational Heritage;144
7.7;7.5 Resources;149
8;to 8 Urban Design and Urban Water Ecosystems;153
8.1;8.1 Background: Cities, Rain and Water Systems;153
8.1.1;8.1.1 Strategic Context;154
8.2;8.2 Historical Questions and Examples;155
8.3;8.3 Establishing an Ecological Frame for Watershed Analysis in Urban Design;158
8.3.1;8.3.1 The Regulatory Frame;159
8.3.2;8.3.2 The Site-Based Frame;160
8.3.3;8.3.3 The Geography-Based Analytical Frame;161
8.4;8.4 Implications and Integration;163
8.4.1;8.4.1 Heuristics;164
8.4.2;8.4.2 Proposal for an Integrative Heuristic;165
8.4.3;8.4.3 The Standard Approach Versus an Integrative Approach;167
8.4.4;8.4.4 Strategic Implications for Science and Design;174
8.4.5;8.4.5 Value of Visibility/Public Awareness;175
8.5;8.5 Current Drivers of Innovation;176
8.6;8.6 Conclusions;177
8.7;8.7 Research;178
8.7.1;8.7.1 Implementation;180
9;to 9 Legal Framework for the Urban Water Environment;183
9.1;9.1 Introduction;183
9.2;9.2 Governing Legal Principles and Doctrines;183
9.2.1;9.2.1 Water Supply;184
9.2.2;9.2.2 Water Treatment and Distribution;189
9.2.3;9.2.3 Wastewater, Stormwater, and Drainage;191
9.2.4;9.2.4 Benefits of Urban Aquatic Ecosystems;198
9.3;9.3 Legal Barriers to a Sustainable Urban Water Environment;198
9.3.1;9.3.1 Common Law Versus Statutory Approaches;199
9.3.2;9.3.2 Fragmentation in Water Law;199
9.3.3;9.3.3 Public Versus Private Rights;202
9.3.4;9.3.4 The Public Trust Doctrine;202
9.3.5;9.3.5 Beyond the Public Trust?;203
10;to 10 Institutions Affecting the Urban Water Environment;206
10.1;10.1 Introduction;206
10.2;10.2 Federal Institutions and Agencies;207
10.2.1;10.2.1 Environmental Protection Agency (U.S. Environmental Protection Agency Website);207
10.2.2;10.2.2 Army Corps of Engineers (ACE Website);209
10.2.3;10.2.3 Fish and Wildlife Service (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service Website);210
10.2.4;10.2.4 Natural Resources Conservation Service (Natural Resources Conservation Service Website);211
10.2.5;10.2.5 Federal Emergency Management Agency (Federal Emergency Management Agency Website);211
10.2.6;10.2.6 Federal Land Management Agencies;212
10.2.7;10.2.7 U.S. Geological Survey (U.S. Geological Survey Water Resources Website);212
10.2.8;10.2.8 Council on Environmental Quality (Council on Environmental Quality Website);213
10.2.9;10.2.9 Bureau of Reclamation (U.S. Bureau of Reclamation Website);213
10.2.10;10.2.10 Native American Tribes and the Bureau of Indian Affairs (Bureau of Indian Affairs Website);214
10.3;10.3 State Institutions;214
10.3.1;10.3.1 State Water Quantity Institutions;214
10.3.2;10.3.2 State Water Quality and Environmental Agencies;215
10.4;10.4 Local and Regional Water Institutions;216
10.4.1;10.4.1 Local and Regional Water Suppliers;216
10.4.2;10.4.2 Local Sewerage, Water Pollution Control, Storm Water Management and Flood Control Agencies;218
10.4.3;10.4.3 Local Planning and Zoning Institutions;218
10.5;10.5 Institutional Fragmentation as a Barrier to a Sustainable Urban Water Environment;219
10.5.1;10.5.1 Example: Integrated Water Institutions in Chicago (Chicago Water Website);221
10.5.2;10.5.2 Example: Integrated Water Institutions in Salt Lake City (Salt Lake Water Website);221
10.5.3;10.5.3 Competing Policy Factors in Allocating Responsibility for Urban Water Quality;221
10.5.4;10.5.4 Addressing Issues of Political Fragmentation;222
10.5.5;10.5.5 Remaining Problems of Issue Fragmentation;223
10.5.6;10.5.6 Working Toward Solutions: Interstate, International, Watershed Management and Other Collaborative Institutions;224
11;to 11 Institutional Structures for Water Management in the Eastern United States;227
11.1;11.1 Introduction;227
11.2;11.2 Legal Framework for Water Management;228
11.3;11.3 The Watershed Approach;229
11.3.1;11.3.1 Scope;229
11.3.2;11.3.2 Scale;229
11.4;11.4 Water and Watershed Management Approaches;231
11.4.1;11.4.1 Existing Political Boundary Approaches;232
11.4.2;11.4.2 Watershed-Based Approaches;232
11.5;11.5 Lessons Learned;240
11.5.1;11.5.1 Implementation Difficulties/Barriers;240
11.5.2;11.5.2 Factors Influencing Success;242
12;to 12 Adaptive Water Quantity Management: Designing for Sustainability and Resiliency in Water Scarce Regions;245
12.1;12.1 Water Policy Challenges;245
12.1.1;12.1.1 Population;245
12.1.2;12.1.2 Natural Resources;246
12.1.3;12.1.3 Lifestyles and Consumption Patterns;248
12.1.4;12.1.4 Technology;250
12.1.5;12.1.5 Governance;251
12.1.6;12.1.6 Adaptation and Resiliency;251
12.2;12.2 Water Management: Policy Frameworks and Programs;251
12.2.1;12.2.1 Arizona's Approach;252
12.2.2;12.2.2 Adequate Water Supply Programs;254
12.2.3;12.2.3 Conjunctive Management -- Recharge and Recovery Programs;256
12.2.3.1;12.2.3.1 Contrasting of Arizona, California and Colorado Approaches;257
12.2.4;12.2.4 New Supplies and Coping with Growth and Drought;258
12.2.5;12.2.5 Water Demand Management Approaches -- Conservation;259
12.2.6;12.2.6 Decision Making and Institutional Characteristics;261
12.3;12.3 Adaptive Management: Designing for Sustainability with Resilience;261
12.3.1;12.3.1 Design for Adaptability;263
12.3.2;12.3.2 Securing Political Support;265
12.4;12.4 Meeting the Challenges of Today and Tomorrow;266
13;to 13 Demand Management, Privatization, Water Markets, and Efficient Water Allocation in Our Cities;269
13.1;13.1 Introduction;269
13.2;13.2 Demand Management;269
13.3;13.3 Privatization;274
13.4;13.4 Water Markets;278
13.5;13.5 Sustainability of Water Use;279
13.6;13.6 Water Quality and Incentives;280
13.7;13.7 Summary and Conclusions;282
14;to 14 Principles for Managing the Urban Water Environment in the 21st Century;285
14.1;14.1 Introduction;285
14.1.1;14.1.1 Revisiting the Urban Water Environment;285
14.1.2;14.1.2 Chapter Goal;286
14.2;14.2 Principle 1: Influence of Urbanization;286
14.2.1;14.2.1 Use Water Balances to Guide Urban Water Management;286
14.2.2;14.2.2 Manage Pollution at the Ecosystem Level;288
14.2.3;14.2.3 Practice Adaptive Management;288
14.2.4;14.2.4 Value Physical and Ecological Integrity;288
14.3;14.3 Principle 2: Change is Inevitable;289
14.3.1;14.3.1 Understand Drivers of Change;289
14.3.2;14.3.2 Anticipate and Manage Change;290
14.4;14.4 Principle 3: Water and People;291
14.4.1;14.4.1 Engage the Public Broadly;290
14.4.2;14.4.2 Develop a Public Vision;293
14.4.3;14.4.3 Visualize Change;293
14.4.4;14.4.4 Never Forget Sanitation;294
14.4.5;14.4.5 Value Aesthetic and Ecological Functions of Water;294
14.5;14.5 Principle 4: Water Management Institutions;295
14.5.1;14.5.1 Develop Effective Water Institutions;295
14.5.2;14.5.2 Develop the Right Type of Water Management Institutions;296
14.6;14.6 Principle 5: Interdisciplinary Framework;297
14.6.1;14.6.1 Connect the Dots;298
14.6.2;14.6.2 Think Across Disciplines;298
14.7;14.7 In Closing;298
15;to Glossary;300