Berczi The Brain and Host Defense

1. Auflage 2009
ISBN: 978-0-444-53545-0
Verlag: Elsevier Science & Techn.
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: 6 - ePub Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, Band Volume 9, 358 Seiten

Reihe: NeuroImmune Biology

It is now well recognized that the brain, and especially the hypothalamus, plays an important role in the regulation of immune reactions and inflammation. This book aims to review our current state of knowledge of this important field. Key historical findings are presented, and the reciprocal interactions between the brain and the immune system are examined. Particular emphasis is placed on inflammation, a critical host defense reaction that serves as an effector response for both the adaptive and innate immune systems.Mechanisms implicated in brain defense, as well as in more general host defense, are discussed. The regulatory influences of the brain on inflammatory responses are included with particular reference to the role of the hypothalamus, which is also the main director the hormonal regulation of immune/inflammatory. Gender-related differences in immune responsiveness, circadian modulator of immune responses, and evidence that behavioral conditioning (e.g. reward) of immune responses is possible are used as examples to reinforce the notion that the neuroendocrine system exerts a fundamental and complex regulatory influence on the immune system. - Presents timely issues such as immunological aspects of the blood-brain-barrier and the role of inflammatory mediators in the evolution of strokes and degenerative diseases - Includes analysis of the role of the brain in the adaptive responses to disease - Evaluates the argument that further knowledge of the influence of the brain on the immune system will provide new insights to the pathophysiology infectious and autoimmune diseases

Autoren/Hrsg.

Berczi, Istvan

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Front Cover;1
2;The Brain and Host Defense;4
3;Copyright Page;5
4;Contents;6
5;Foreword;8
6;Preface;12
7;List of Contributors;14
8;Section I: Introduction;16
8.1;Chapter 1 The Hypothalamus is the Central Organ of Immunoregulation;18
8.1.1;1 INTRODUCTION;18
8.1.2;2 SIGNALING THE HYPOTHALAMUS BY THE IMMUNE SYSTEM;18
8.1.3;3 NEUROIMMUNOREGULATION DURING HOMEOSTASIS;20
8.1.4;4 NEUROGENIC INFLAMMATION (NIF);21
8.1.5;5 THE ACUTE PHASE RESPONSE (APR);21
8.1.6;6 HEALING;22
8.1.7;7 CONCLUSIONS;22
8.1.8;REFERENCES;23
9;Section II: Development and Function of the Neuroimmune System;26
9.1;Chapter 2 Leech Neuroimmune Signaling;28
9.1.1;1 INTRODUCTION;28
9.1.2;2 NEUROIMMUNE MODULATION BY OPIOIDS;28
9.1.3;3 NEUROIMMUNE MODULATION BY OPIATES;31
9.1.4;4 NEUROIMMUNE MODULATION BY CANNABINOIDS;33
9.1.5;5 BRAIN INNATE IMMUNE RESPONSE;34
9.1.6;6 CONCLUSIONS;35
9.1.7;ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS;35
9.1.8;REFERENCES;35
9.2;Chapter 3 Morphogenesis of the Hypothalamus and Hypophysis;40
9.2.1;1 INTRODUCTION;40
9.2.2;2 MORPHOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF PITUITARY DEVELOPMENT;40
9.2.3;3 THE PITUITARY PRIMORDIUM AS A MEMBER OF THE CRANIAL PLACODES;42
9.2.4;4 MOLECULAR ASPECTS OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF ADENOHYPOPHYSEAL PLACODE;44
9.2.5;5 SIGNALING MOLECULES ACTING BEFORE AND AFTER THE FORMATION OF "RATHKE'S POUCH";44
9.2.6;6 TRANSCRIPTION FACTORS WORKING IN DEVELOPING PITUITARY CELLS;45
9.2.7;7 ADENOHYPOPHYSIS AND ITS HOMOLOGS IN AGNATHAN VERTEBRATES AND PROTOCHORDATES;47
9.2.8;REFERENCES;48
9.3;Chapter 4 A Novel Genus of Specialized Anti-Inflammatory and Pro-Resolution Lipid Mediators;52
9.3.1;1 INFLAMMATION;52
9.3.2;2 RESOLUTION OF SELF-LIMITED ACUTE INFLAMMATION;53
9.3.3;3 ANTI-INFLAMMATORY AND PRO-RESOLUTION LIPID MEDIATORS;54
9.3.4;4 RESOLVINS;58
9.3.5;5 PROTECTINS AND D-SERIES RESOLVINS;58
9.3.6;6 MARESINS;63
9.3.7;7 CONCLUSIONS;65
9.3.8;8 SUMMARY;65
9.3.9;ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS;65
9.3.10;REFERENCES;65
9.4;Chapter 5 Neural and Non-Neural Stem Cells as Novel Therapeutic Modalities for Brain Injury;74
9.4.1;1 INTRODUCTION;74
9.4.2;2 NEURAL STEM CELLS;74
9.4.3;3 NON-NEURONAL (ADULT) STEM CELLS IN THE CNS;77
9.4.4;REFERENCES;78
9.5;Chapter 6 The Role of the Toll-Like Receptors in Neuropathology;82
9.5.1;1 INTRODUCTION;82
9.5.2;2 IMMUNE-LINKED RECEPTORS IN THE BRAIN;82
9.5.3;3 STRUCTURE OF TLRS;82
9.5.4;4 TLR ADAPTOR PROTEINS;83
9.5.5;5 STROKE/ISCHEMIC BRAIN DAMAGE;85
9.5.6;6 INVADING PATHOGENS;85
9.5.7;7 CANCER;86
9.5.8;8 SPINAL CORD INJURY;86
9.5.9;9 ALZHEIMER'S DISEASE;87
9.5.10;10 MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS;88
9.5.11;11 NEUROPATHIC PAIN;88
9.5.12;12 CONCLUSIONS;89
9.5.13;REFERENCES;90
9.5.14;FURTHER READING;92
9.6;Chapter 7 Cytokines and the Immune–Neuroendocrine Network;94
9.6.1;1 INTRODUCTION;94
9.6.2;N.....i..................................................;97
9.6.3;3 Th1 CYTOKINES IN THE NEUROIMMUNE NETWORK;99
9.6.4;4 REGULATORY CYTOKINES IN THE NEUROIMMUNE NETWORK;99
9.6.5;5 CYTOKINES AND MAJOR DEPRESSION;100
9.6.6;6 CONCLUDING REMARKS;100
9.6.7;ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS;101
9.6.8;REFERENCES;101
9.7;Chapter 8 Orexin-Containing Neurons and the Immune System;106
9.7.1;1 INTRODUCTION;106
9.7.2;2 OREXIN AND OREXINERGIC NEURONS;106
9.7.3;3 OREXINERGIC NEURON PROJECTIONS;107
9.7.4;4 OREXIN RECEPTORS;108
9.7.5;5 HYPOTHALAMIC OREXIN-CONTAINING NEURONS AND CYCLOPHOSPHAMIDE ADMINISTRATION;110
9.7.6;6 OREXIN-CONTAINING NEURONS RESPOND TO ANTIGENIC CHALLENGES;110
9.7.7;CONCLUSION;112
9.7.8;REFERENCES;112
9.8;Chapter 9 Central Pathways of Immunoregulation;116
9.8.1;1 CENTRAL PATHWAYS OF IMMUNOREGULATION;116
9.8.2;E.................u...C..............r...................;116
9.8.3;E.................u...C..............r...................;116
9.8.4;E.................u...C..............r...................;118
9.8.5;5 DESCENDING NEURAL PATHWAYS FROM THE PVN TO IMMUNE END ORGANS;119
9.8.6;6 RECRUITMENT OF PRE-SYMPATHETIC NUCLEI;119
9.8.7;7 DESCENDING CONNECTIONS FROM PRE-SYMPATHETIC TO PREGANGLIONIC CELLS;121
9.8.8;8 INNERVATION OF IMMUNE ORGANS BY SYMPATHETIC PROJECTIONS;121
9.8.9;9 CONCLUSIONS;121
9.8.10;REFERENCES;122
9.9;Chapter 10 Brain Responses to Antigenic Challenges;128
9.9.1;1 INTRODUCTION;128
9.9.2;2 NEUROPHYSIOLOGICAL PROCESSES IN HYPOTHALAMIC STRUCTURES DURING IMMUNE RESPONSE DEVELOPMENT;128
9.9.3;3 THE C-FOS GENE AS A MARKER OF ACTIVATION OF NEURONAL CELLS;129
9.9.4;4 C-FOS GENE EXPRESSION IN THE CNS AFTER ANTIGENIC CHALLENGES;130
9.9.5;5 CONCLUSIONS;134
9.9.6;ACKNOWLEDGEMENT;134
9.9.7;REFERENCES;134
10;Section III: Immunoregulation by the Nervous System;138
10.1;Chapter 11 Role of the Endocrine System;140
10.1.1;1 INTRODUCTION;140
10.1.2;2 HPA AXIS AND THE IMMUNE RESPONSE;140
10.1.3;3 OTHER NEUROENDOCRINE AXES AND THE IMMUNE RESPONSE;143
10.1.4;4 CONCLUSIONS;144
10.1.5;REFERENCES;144
10.2;Chapter 12 Conditioning of Immune Reactions;146
10.2.1;INTRODUCTION;146
10.2.2;1 EVIDENCE FOR CNS AND IMMUNE SYSTEM INTERACTIONS;146
10.2.3;2 CONDITIONING OF IMMUNITY IN ANIMAL MODEL SYSTEMS;148
10.2.4;3 POSSIBLE MECHANISMS FOR MEDIATING CLASSICAL CONDITIONING OF IMMUNE RESPONSES;151
10.2.5;4 SUMMARY AND DISCUSSION;155
10.2.6;ACKNOWLEDGEMENT;156
10.2.7;REFERENCES;156
10.3;Chapter 13 Gender Issues in Host Defense;160
10.3.1;1 INTRODUCTION;160
10.3.2;2 HOST DEFENSE;160
10.3.3;3 GENDER ISSUES IN HOST DEFENSE MECHANISMS;161
10.3.4;4 IMMUNE-DEPRESSIVE EFFECTS OF MALE SEX STEROIDS;165
10.3.5;5 POTENTIAL IMMUNE-MODULATORY MECHANISMS OF SEX STEROIDS;167
10.3.6;6 THERAPEUTIC OPTIONS;168
10.3.7;7 CONCLUSIONS;169
10.3.8;REFERENCES;170
11;Section IV: How the Brain Defends Itself;174
11.1;Chapter 14 Glial Cells in Brain Defense Mechanisms;176
11.1.1;1 INTRODUCTION: GLIAL CELLS IN THE BRAIN;176
11.1.2;2 MICROGLIA;176
11.1.3;3 CANDIDATE NEURON–MICROGLIA SIGNALING FACTORS;178
11.1.4;4 CONCLUSIONS;180
11.1.5;REFERENCES;180
11.2;Chapter 15 Immunologic Privilege and the Brain;184
11.2.1;1 INTRODUCTION;184
11.2.2;2 DEFINING THE BRAIN AS AN IMMUNOLOGICALLY PRIVILEGED SITE: HISTORICAL ROOTS;185
11.2.3;3 COMPONENTS OF IMMUNOLOGIC PRIVILEGE;186
11.2.4;4 LYMPHOCYTE TRAFFICKING;189
11.2.5;5 DOWNREGULATION OF INTRA-CNS IMMUNE RESPONSES;192
11.2.6;6 CONCLUSION;192
11.2.7;REFERENCES;193
11.3;Chapter 16 Immune Aspects of the Blood–Brain Barrier;198
11.3.1;1 INTRODUCTION TO THE BLOOD–BRAIN BARRIER;198
11.3.2;2 ENDOTHELIAL CELL ACTIVATION;200
11.3.3;3 PERICYTES: THE SECOND LINE OF DEFENSE;203
11.3.4;4 ASTROCYTE–BARRIER INDUCTIVE EFFECTS;205
11.3.5;5 CONCLUSION;206
11.3.6;REFERENCES;207
11.4;Chapter 17 Neuroprotective Activities of CD4[sup(+)]CD25[sup(+)] Regulatory T Cells;212
11.4.1;1 INTRODUCTION;212
11.4.2;2 HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE;213
11.4.3;3 DEVELOPMENT OF TREGS;213
11.4.4;4 MECHANISMS OF REGULATION;213
11.4.5;5 INTERPLAY BETWEEN TH1, TH2, TH17 AND TREG CELLS;215
11.4.6;6 ADAPTIVE IMMUNITY AND NEUROPROTECTION;216
11.4.7;7 TREGS ARE PROTECTIVE IN MODELS OF NEURODEGENERATION;216
11.4.8;8 TREGS AND MONONUCLEAR PHAGOCYTE ACTIVATION;217
11.4.9;9 TREGS REGULATE PROTECTIVE IMMUNITY;217
11.4.10;10 INDUCTION OF TREGS WITH ADJUNCTIVE THERAPY;219
11.4.11;11 CONCLUSION;219
11.4.12;REFERENCES;220
12;Section V: The Role of the Brain in Host Defense in Disease States;226
12.1;Chapter 18 Fever as a Host Defense Mechanism;228
12.1.1;1 INTRODUCTION;228
12.1.2;2 DEFINITION OF FEVER;228
12.1.3;3 FEVER: AN OLD WEAPON OF MASS PROTECTION;228
12.1.4;4 THE COURSE AND CHARACTER OF FEVER;229
12.1.5;5 THERMOEFFECTOR MECHANISMS OF FEBRIGENESIS AND FEBRILYSIS;230
12.1.6;6 THE PYROGENIC STIMULUS;231
12.1.7;7 THE NEURAL SUBSTRATE OF FEVER PRODUCTION AND LYSIS;233
12.1.8;8 PUTATIVE MEDIATORS OF FEVER;234
12.1.9;9 IMMUNONEUROMODULATION OF FEVER: UPDATED CONCEPT;236
12.1.10;10 CONCLUSIONS;243
12.1.11;ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS;244
12.1.12;REFERENCES;244
12.2;Chapter 19 Leukocytes as Mediators of Pain and Analgesia;252
12.2.1;1 INTRODUCTION;252
12.2.2;2 PROALGESIC MECHANISMS;252
12.2.3;3 ANALGESIC MECHANISMS;256
12.2.4;REFERENCES;262
12.3;Chapter 20 Tumor Necrosis Factor as a Neuroinflammatory Mediator in Alzheimer's Disease and Stroke: Molecular Mechanisms and Neuroinflammatory Imaging;266
12.3.1;1 INTRODUCTION;266
12.3.2;2 SOME BASIC ASPECTS OF CEREBRAL INFLAMMATION;267
12.3.3;3 COMMON INFLAMMATORY FEATURES IN NORMAL BRAIN;268
12.3.4;4 INFLAMMATORY SIGNALS IN NEURODEGENERATIVE DISORDERS AND STROKE: MARKERS FOR DAMAGE OR PROTECTION?;268
12.3.5;5 NEUROINFLAMMATORY IMAGING;269
12.3.6;6 INFLAMMATORY MOLECULES AS POSSIBLE DRUG TARGETS FOR NOVEL THERAPEUTIC STRATEGIES;272
12.3.7;7 NEUROINFLAMMATION, MICROGLIAL ACTIVATION AND NEURODEGENERATION: ADDITIONAL PATHWAYS;276
12.3.8;8 NEUROINFLAMMATION: CAN INFLAMMATION LEAD TO IMPROVEMENTS IN DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT OF NEURODEGENERATIVE DISEASES?;277
12.3.9;REFERENCES;278
12.4;Chapter 21 Multiple Sclerosis and Depression: A Neuroimmunological Perspective;284
12.4.1;1 INTRODUCTION;284
12.4.2;2 FREQUENCY OF DEPRESSION IN MS;284
12.4.3;3 DEPRESSION PRIOR TO ONSET OF MS;285
12.4.4;4 FAMILY HISTORY OF DEPRESSION IN MS;285
12.4.5;5 DEPRESSION AT ONSET OF MS;286
12.4.6;6 DEPRESSION IN ELDERLY MS PATIENTS;286
12.4.7;7 CLINICAL FEATURES OF DEPRESSION IN MS;287
12.4.8;8 SYMPTOMS SHARED BETWEEN DEPRESSION AND MS;287
12.4.9;9 CLINICAL CORRELATIONS;288
12.4.10;10 SUICIDE IN MS;288
12.4.11;11 MIGRAINE AND MS;289
12.4.12;12 BRAIN METABOLISM IN DEPRESSION;289
12.4.13;13 BRAIN METABOLISM IN MS;290
12.4.14;14 MRI, DEPRESSION AND MS;291
12.4.15;15 THE HYPOTHALAMIC–PITUITARY–ADRENAL (HPA) AXIS IN DEPRESSION;291
12.4.16;16 THE HPA AXIS IN MS;295
12.4.17;17 BIPOLAR DISEASE;297
12.4.18;18 THE IMMUNOLOGY OF MULTIPLE SCLEROSIS;298
12.4.19;19 CYTOKINES IN DEPRESSION AND THE EFFECT OF ANTIDEPRESSANTS ON CYTOKINES;300
12.4.20;20 BRAIN-DERIVED NEUROTROPHIC FACTOR (BDNF) IN DEPRESSION AND IN MS;304
12.4.21;21 CORTICOTROPHIN-RELEASING HORMONE (CRH) IN PERIPHERAL TISSUES;305
12.4.22;22 DOES DEPRESSION COMPLICATE TREATMENT OF MS WITH IMMUNOMODULATORY DRUGS?;306
12.4.23;23 MANAGEMENT OF DEPRESSION IN PEOPLE WITH MS;308
12.4.24;ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS;309
12.4.25;REFERENCES;309
12.5;Chapter 22 Infection and Sepsis;324
12.5.1;1 HOST IMMUNE RESPONSES DURING INFECTION AND SEPSIS;324
12.5.2;2 BRAIN-TO-IMMUNE PATHWAYS THAT REGULATE HOST RESPONSES DURING INFECTION;326
12.5.3;3 SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION;331
12.5.4;ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS;332
12.5.5;REFERENCES;332
12.6;Chapter 23 Restoration of Neuroimmune Disturbances in Rats by Extra-High-Frequency Electromagnetic Irradiation of the Skin;336
12.6.1;1 INTRODUCTION;336
12.6.2;2 NK CELL ACTIVITY AND EXPRESSION OF THE C-FOS GENE IN HYPOTHALAMIC STRUCTURES OF RATS AFTER PAINFUL ELECTRIC STIMULATION OF THE LIMBS: THE EFFECT OF EHF SKIN IRRADIATION;337
12.6.3;3 C-FOS GENE EXPRESSION, MORPHOFUNCTIONAL CHANGES IN OREXIN-CONTAINING NEURONS IN HYPOTHALAMIC STRUCTURES AND NK CELL ACTIVITY IN…;339
12.6.4;4 LIPOPOLYSACCHARIDE-INDUCED ACTIVATION OF HYPOTHALAMIC OREXIN-CONTAINING NEURONS IN RATS, NATURAL KILER CELL CYTOTOXICITY AND THE…;342
12.6.5;5 CONCLUSIONS;343
12.6.6;ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS;344
12.6.7;REFERENCES;344
13;Subject Index;348
13.1;A;348
13.2;B;349
13.3;C;349
13.4;D;350
13.5;E;350
13.6;F;351
13.7;G;351
13.8;H;351
13.9;I;352
13.10;J;353
13.11;K;353
13.12;L;353
13.13;M;354
13.14;N;355
13.15;O;355
13.16;P;355
13.17;Q;356
13.18;R;356
13.19;S;356
13.20;T;357
13.21;U;358
13.22;V;358
13.23;W;358
13.24;Z;358
14;Color Plates;360