Brown / Waite Titan from Cassini-Huygens

1. Auflage 2009
ISBN: 978-1-4020-9215-2
Verlag: Springer-Verlag
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: Wasserzeichen (»Systemvoraussetzungen)

E-Book, Englisch, 535 Seiten

This book is one of two volumes meant to capture, to the extent practical, the sci- ti? c legacy of the Cassini-Huygens prime mission, a landmark in the history of pl- etary exploration. As the most ambitious and interdisciplinary planetary exploration mission ? own to date, it has extended our knowledge of the Saturn system to levels of detail at least an order of magnitude beyond that gained from all previous missions to Saturn. Nestled in the brilliant light of the ne w and deep understanding of the Saturn pl- etary system is the shiny nugget that is the spectacularly successful collaboration of individuals, organizations and governments in the achievement of Cassini-Huygens. In some ways the partnerships formed and lessons learned may be the most enduring legacy of Cassini-Huygens. The broad, international coalition that is Cassini- Huygens is now conducting the Cassini Equinox Mission and planning the Cassini Solstice Mission, and in a major expansion of those fruitful efforts, has extended the collaboration to the study of new ? agship missions to both Jupiter and Saturn. Such ventures have and will continue to enrich us all, and evoke a very optimistic vision of the future of international collaboration in planetary exploration.

Robert Brown, of the Lunar and Planetary Laboratory of the University of Arizona, Tucson, USA, is the Team Leader for Cassini's Visible and Infrared Mapping Spectrometer (VIMS). Dr. Brown is  Professor of Planetary Sciences. His research interests center on observational, theoretical, and laboratory studies of planetary surfaces and surface processes. Of particular interest in his research are Titan and the rest of Saturn's icy moons.Jean-Pierre Lebreton is the ESA Project Scientist and Mission Manager for the Huygens mission. His particular speciality is planetary science, studying plasma physics.
Dr. Lebreton is also in the ESA team working on the Rosetta mission and, in particular, he is involved with the Plasma Consortium Experiment. He led the divisional activities on the Tethered Satellite System.Jack Hunter Waite is a planetary scientist specializing in the application of mass spectrometry to the study of solar system biogeochemistry and aeronomy. He is involved in research projects in ion/neutral mass spectrometry, gas chromatography, biogeochemistry, thermospheric modeling, and planetary astronomy. Dr. Waite is the Team Leader for the Cassini Ion and Neutral Mass Spectrometer investigation, co-investigator and lead SwRI hardware manager for the Rosetta/Rosina Reflectron Time-of-Flight, principal investigator for the development of a Jupiter Thermosphere-Ionosphere General Circulation Model, a co-investigator in planetary observing programs with Hubble Space Telescope (HST), Chandra, and the Canada France Hawaii Telescope and leads a major effort for the development of analytical techniques for use in the study of planetary biogeochemistry funded by NASA JPL and the NASA ASTID programs.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Brown, Robert

Waite, Jack

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Preface;5
2;Contents;6
3;Chapter 1;8
3.1;Overview;8
3.1.1;1.1 Introduction;8
3.1.2;1.2 Organization;8
3.1.3;1.3 Synopses of the Main Results for Titan;9
3.1.3.1;1.3.1 Origin, Evolution and Interior (Chapters 3 and 4);9
3.1.3.2;1.3.2 Surface (Chapters 5 and 6);9
3.1.3.3;1.3.3 Volatiles (Chapters 7–9);11
3.1.3.4;1.3.4 Atmosphere (Chapters 10–14);12
3.1.3.5;1.3.5 Magnetospheric Interactions (Chapters 15 and 16);13
3.1.4;1.4 Open Questions;13
3.1.4.1;1.4.1 Titan’s Interior;13
3.1.4.2;1.4.2 Titan’s Geology and Surface Composition;13
3.1.4.3;1.4.3 Titan’s Volatiles;14
3.1.4.4;1.4.4 Titan’s Atmosphere and Ionosphere;14
3.1.4.5;1.4.5 Titan’s Magnetospheric Interactions;14
3.1.5;References;14
4;Chapter 2;15
4.1;Earth-Based Perspective and Pre-Cassini–Huygens Knowledge of Titan;15
4.1.1;2.1 Context/Introduction;15
4.1.2;2.2 Early History of Titan Observations and First Interpretations;15
4.1.3;2.3 Pre-Voyager Observations and Predictions;16
4.1.4;2.4 The Voyager Mission to Titan;18
4.1.4.1;2.4.1 Visual Appearance and Haze Properties;18
4.1.4.2;2.4.2 Atmospheric Bulk Composition and Mean Thermal Structure;19
4.1.4.3;2.4.3 Atmospheric Trace Composition and Photochemistry;20
4.1.4.4;2.4.4 Thermal Balance;22
4.1.4.5;2.4.5 Circulation and Meteorology;23
4.1.4.6;2.4.6 Speculations About the Surface and the Interior;24
4.1.5;2.5 Observations of Titan from the Earth and Earth-Orbit in the Post-Voyager Era;25
4.1.5.1;2.5.1 Radar Observations;25
4.1.5.2;2.5.2 Near-IR and Visible Spectroscopy and Imaging;25
4.1.5.2.1;2.5.2.1 Surface Composition and Morphology;26
4.1.5.2.2;2.5.2.2 Atmospheric Phenomena;26
4.1.5.3;2.5.3 Mid-Infrared, Far-Infrared and Millimeter Spectroscopy;29
4.1.5.4;2.5.4 Stellar Occultations;31
4.1.5.4.1;2.5.4.1 Temperature Profi les;31
4.1.5.4.2;2.5.4.2 Gravity-Waves;32
4.1.5.4.3;2.5.4.3 Winds;32
4.1.5.4.4;2.5.4.4 Haze;33
4.1.5.5;2.5.5 Earth-Based Observations During the Huygens Mission;34
4.1.6;2.6 Concluding Remarks and Open Questions Before Cassini–Huygens;34
4.1.7;References;35
5;Chapter 3;41
5.1;The Origin and Evolution of Titan;41
5.1.1;3.1 Introduction;41
5.1.2;3.2 General Constraints on the Environment Around Early Saturn;41
5.1.3;3.3 Compositional and Physical Constraints on Titan Formation;44
5.1.3.1;3.3.1 Satellite Formation and the End of the Saturn Subnebula;44
5.1.3.2;3.3.2 Trapping of Volatiles;45
5.1.3.3;3.3.3 Resulting Composition of Titan and Confrontation with Cassini–Huygens Data;47
5.1.4;3.4 Accretion of Titan;48
5.1.4.1;3.4.1 Range of Accretional Heating Values;48
5.1.4.2;3.4.2 Properties of a Primitive Atmosphere Immediately After Accretion;49
5.1.5;3.5 Core Formation, Crustal Freezing and Initial Outgassing;50
5.1.5.1;3.5.1 Internal Differentiation and Evolution;50
5.1.5.2;3.5.2 Primitive Crust Formation;51
5.1.5.3;3.5.3 Internal Reservoir of Volatiles;53
5.1.6;3.6 Particular Problems;55
5.1.6.1;3.6.1 Origin of Nitrogen;55
5.1.6.2;3.6.2 Origin of Methane;56
5.1.6.2.1;3.6.2.1 Accretion of CH 4 or of CO/CO 2;56
5.1.6.2.2;3.6.2.2 Methane Replenishment via Cryovolcanism;58
5.1.7;3.7 Presence of an Atmosphere on Titan But Not Ganymede and Callisto;60
5.1.8;3.8 Questions for Future Missions;61
5.1.9;References;62
6;Chapter 4;66
6.1;Titan’s Interior Structure;66
6.1.1;4.1 Introduction;66
6.1.2;4.2 Observations that Constrain the Interior Structure;67
6.1.2.1;4.2.1 Orbital Data (Eccentricity, Obliquity and Rotation Rate);68
6.1.2.2;4.2.2 Gravity Field;69
6.1.2.3;4.2.3 Titan’s Shape;71
6.1.2.4;4.2.4 Titan’s Electric and Magnetic Field;72
6.1.2.5;4.2.5 Geological Data - Apparent Misregistration of Geological Features;73
6.1.3;4.3 Modeling the Interior Structure;74
6.1.3.1;4.3.1 Description of the Nominal Model;74
6.1.3.2;4.3.2 Heat Sources (Radiogenic, Tidal Heating, Latent Heat) at Present;74
6.1.3.3;4.3.3 Ice Crust: Convection or Conduction in the Ice Crust;75
6.1.4;4.4 Discussion and Remaining Questions to be Addressed by Future Mission;76
6.1.5;4.5 Conclusions;77
6.1.6;References;77
7;Chapter 5;79
7.1;Geology and Surface Processes on Titan;79
7.1.1;5.1 Introduction;79
7.1.2;5.2 Cassini’s Exploration of Titan’s Surface;83
7.1.3;5.3 Titan’s Morphology and Topography;85
7.1.3.1;5.3.1 Morphology;85
7.1.3.2;5.3.2 Topography;90
7.1.4;5.4 Geology at the Huygens Landing Site;102
7.1.4.1;5.4.1 The Huygens Landing Site Terrain;103
7.1.4.2;5.4.2 Topography and Geomorphology at the Huygens Landing Site;106
7.1.4.3;5.4.3 Regional Context, Connection with Orbiter Observations;111
7.1.5;5.5 Tectonic and Volcanic Surface Features and Processes;112
7.1.5.1;5.5.1 Tectonic Features;112
7.1.5.2;5.5.2 Volcanic Features;113
7.1.5.3;5.5.3 Theoretical Considerations for Endogenic Processes;115
7.1.6;5.6 Erosional/Depositional Surface Features, Processes and Redistribution of Material;116
7.1.6.1;5.6.1 Aeolian Features and Processes;116
7.1.6.2;5.6.2 Fluvial Features and Processes;120
7.1.6.3;5.6.3 Depositional Features;126
7.1.6.4;5.6.4 Lakes;128
7.1.7;5.7 Cratering and Surface Ages;131
7.1.8;5.8 Geological Evolution;133
7.1.9;5.9 Summary and Conclusion;135
7.1.10;References;138
8;Chapter 6;145
8.1;Composition of Titan’s Surface;145
8.1.1;6.1 Introduction: Sources of Titan’s Surface Composition;146
8.1.1.1;6.1.1 Atmospheric Organics and Nitrile Compounds;146
8.1.1.2;6.1.2 Titan Aerosols: Tholins;147
8.1.1.3;6.1.3 Hydrocarbon Oceans and Seas;147
8.1.1.4;6.1.4 Subsurface Oceans, H 2 O Ice, Clathrates, Hydrates - Sources of Cryovolcanism;148
8.1.2;6.2 In Situ Observations of Surface Composition from the Huygens Probe;148
8.1.2.1;6.2.1 Gas Chromatograph Mass Spectrometer/Aerosol Collector Pyrolyzer;148
8.1.2.2;6.2.2 Descent Imager/Spectral Radiometer;150
8.1.3;6.3 Surface Composition from Short-Wavelength Infrared Spectroscopy;153
8.1.3.1;6.3.1 The Case for H 2 O Ice;154
8.1.3.2;6.3.2 Mapping Global Compositional Units-Spectral and Geomorphological Correlations;157
8.1.3.3;6.3.3 The Search for CO 2 Ice;160
8.1.3.4;6.3.4 Spectral Evidence of Organics and Nitriles in the 5 m m Window;162
8.1.3.5;6.3.5 The Case for Methane and Ethane Surface Ice;165
8.1.3.6;6.3.6 The Case for Ammonia Ice;165
8.1.4;6.4 Compositional Constraints from Microwave Observations;166
8.1.4.1;6.4.1 Compositional Constraints from the Cassini RADAR Scatterometer;166
8.1.4.2;6.4.2 Constraints from the Cassini RADAR Radiometer;168
8.1.5;6.5 Compositional Constraints on Polar Lakes from RADAR Radiometry and VIMS;170
8.1.6;6.6 Summary;174
8.1.7;References;175
9;Chapter 7;180
9.1;Volatile Origin and Cycles: Nitrogen and Methane;180
9.1.1;7.1 Historical Perspective: From Christiaan Huygens to Cassini–Huygens;180
9.1.2;7.2 Origin and Evolution of Titan ’ s Nitrogen Atmosphere;182
9.1.2.1;7.2.1 Direct Capture of N 2;182
9.1.2.2;7.2.2 N 2 as a Secondary Atmosphere from Primordial NH 3;183
9.1.2.2.1;7.2.2.1 N 2 from NH 3 Photolysis;183
9.1.2.2.2;7.2.2.2 N 2 from Impacts;184
9.1.2.2.3;7.2.2.3 Endogenic N 2;184
9.1.2.2.4;7.2.2.4 Origin and Evolution of Titan’s Nitrogen Atmosphere: The Cassini – Huygens Perspective;185
9.1.3;7.3 The Cycle of Methane on Titan;188
9.1.3.1;7.3.1 The Meteorology of Methane;188
9.1.3.1.1;7.3.1.1 Clouds;190
9.1.3.2;7.3.2 Methane and the Climate on Titan;191
9.1.3.3;7.3.3 Photochemical Destruction of Methane in the Stratosphere: The Ethane Ocean Dilemma;194
9.1.3.4;7.3.4 Methane Replenishment – The Source of Methane;196
9.1.3.5;7.3.5 Origin of Methane;197
9.1.4;7.4 Summary and Future Observations;198
9.1.5;References;199
10;Chapter 8;203
10.1;High-Altitude Production of Titan’s Aerosols;203
10.1.1;8.1 Cassini Observations of Heavy Hydrocarbons in Titan’s Upper Atmosphere;204
10.1.2;8.2 New Chemical Models Based on the Cassini Results;211
10.1.3;8.3 Conclusions: Laboratory Simulations and the Future of Titan Exploration;212
10.1.4;References;215
11;Chapter 9;217
11.1;Titan’s Astrobiology;217
11.1.1;9.1 From Astrobiology to Titan;217
11.1.2;9.2 Titan: A Fiercely Frozen Echo of the Early Earth?;218
11.1.2.1;9.2.1 Introduction;218
11.1.2.2;9.2.2 The Origin of the Earth’s Atmosphere;218
11.1.2.3;9.2.3 General Remarks;219
11.1.2.4;9.2.4 Lessons for Earth;220
11.1.2.5;9.2.5 Original Sources of Volatiles: Titan and Earth;220
11.1.2.6;9.2.6 Summary;221
11.1.3;9.3 Prebiotic-like Organic Chemistry;222
11.1.3.1;9.3.1 Laboratory Simulations, Modeling and Observation;222
11.1.3.2;9.3.2 Organic Chemistry in the Atmosphere;222
11.1.3.2.1;9.3.2.1 Photochemical Modeling;222
11.1.3.2.2;9.3.2.2 Laboratory Simulation Experiments;223
11.1.3.2.2.1;Gas Phase Products;224
11.1.3.2.2.2;CH 3 C * H(C 2 H 5 )CH=CH 2 and CH 3 C * H(CN)CH=CH 2;224
11.1.3.2.2.3;Titan’s Tholins;225
11.1.3.2.3;9.3.2.3 Observational Data;226
11.1.3.3;9.3.3 Organic Chemistry on the Surface and Sub-surface;227
11.1.3.3.1;9.3.3.1 Surface Chemistry;227
11.1.3.3.2;9.3.3.2 Sub-surface;228
11.1.3.4;9.3.4 Summary;230
11.1.4;9.4 Habitability and Life;230
11.1.5;9.5 Titan and the Destiny of Life on Earth;231
11.1.6;References;232
12;Chapter 10;236
12.1;Atmospheric Structure and Composition;236
12.1.1;10.1 Historical Introduction;236
12.1.2;10.2 Vertical Structure of the Atmosphere: Mass Density, Pressure, and Temperature;237
12.1.3;10.3 The Height and Latitude Structure of the Atmosphere;239
12.1.3.1;10.3.1 Radio Occultations;239
12.1.3.2;10.3.2 Remote Sensing;240
12.1.3.3;10.3.3 Solar and Stellar Occultations;241
12.1.3.4;10.3.4 In Situ Measurements;241
12.1.4;10.4 Interpretation of Atmospheric Temperature Structure;242
12.1.4.1;10.4.1 Radiative Budget of Troposphere and Stratosphere;242
12.1.4.2;10.4.2 Radiative Processes in the Upper Atmosphere;243
12.1.5;10.5 Composition;244
12.1.5.1;10.5.1 Major Constituents and Inert, Noble Gases;244
12.1.5.2;10.5.2 Minor Constituents - Hydrocarbons Other than Methane;245
12.1.5.3;10.5.3 Minor Constituents - N-Bearing Species and Nitriles;248
12.1.5.4;10.5.4 Minor Constituents - Oxygen Compounds;249
12.1.5.5;10.5.5 Isotope Ratios;251
12.1.6;10.6 Sources, Sinks, and Photochemistry of Atmospheric Composition;252
12.1.7;10.7 Chemistry and Transport of Atmospheric Constituents;254
12.1.8;10.8 Concluding Remarks;254
12.1.9;References;256
13;Chapter 11;259
13.1;Composition and Structure of the Ionosphere and Thermosphere;259
13.1.1;11.1 Introduction;259
13.1.1.1;11.1.1 Brief Overview of How Titan’s Upper Atmosphere and Ionosphere Fit into a Comparative Picture of Atmospheres and Ionospheres in the Solar System;259
13.1.1.2;11.1.2 Brief Review of Our Knowledge of Titan’s Thermosphere and Ionosphere Prior to the Cassini Mission;260
13.1.1.3;11.1.3 A Brief Overview of the Current Chapter;261
13.1.2;11.2 Structure and Composition of the Upper Neutral Atmosphere;261
13.1.2.1;11.2.1 Brief Review of Basic Processes Relevant to the Neutral Upper Atmosphere;261
13.1.2.2;11.2.2 Observed Variations of the Total Neutral Density and the Major Neutral Species and the Thermospheric Temperature;262
13.1.2.2.1;11.2.2.1 Total Neutral Density;262
13.1.2.2.2;11.2.2.2 Dynamical Implications of Measured Neutral Density Structure;265
13.1.2.2.3;11.2.2.3 Diffusive Separation - Methane Structure in the Thermosphere;265
13.1.2.3;11.2.3 Structure of the Exosphere and Atmospheric Escape;266
13.1.2.4;11.2.4 Interpretation of the Structure of the Neutral Atmosphere, Energy Balance, and Small-Scale Structure;268
13.1.2.5;11.2.5 Observed Variations of Minor Neutral Composition with Altitude, Latitude, Longitude, and Local Time;269
13.1.2.6;11.2.6 Interpretation and Theoretical Considerations for the Minor Neutral Composition - Chemistry;272
13.1.3;11.3 The Structure and Composition of the Ionosphere;275
13.1.3.1;11.3.1 Review of Basic Processes Relevantto the Ionosphere;275
13.1.3.2;11.3.2 Sources of Titan’s Ionosphere;276
13.1.3.3;11.3.3 Observed Variations of the Total Ion Density, the Electron Density and Electron Temperature;277
13.1.3.4;11.3.4 Observed Composition of Titan’s Ionosphere;282
13.1.3.5;11.3.5 Ionospheric Dynamics;284
13.1.3.6;11.3.6 Ionospheric Chemistry;285
13.1.3.7;11.3.7 Ionospheric Energetics;289
13.1.4;11.4 The Role of the Upper Atmosphere and Ionosphere for Titan Overall;289
13.1.4.1;11.4.1 Titan’s Upper Atmosphere as an Interface Between the Magnetosphere and the Lower Atmosphere - Tranport of Energy and Momentum and Atmospheric Loss;289
13.1.4.2;11.4.2 Questions and Issues That Remain Concerning the Upper Atmosphere and Ionosphere of Titan - the Extended Cassini Mission;291
13.1.5;References;292
14;Chapter 13;321
14.1;Atmospheric Dynamics and Meteorology;321
14.1.1;13.1 Introduction;321
14.1.2;13.2 Radiative and Dynamical Time Constants;322
14.1.2.1;13.2.1 Radiative;323
14.1.2.2;13.2.2 Dynamical;323
14.1.3;13.3 Temperatures and Zonal Winds;323
14.1.3.1;13.3.1 Temperatures;324
14.1.3.2;13.3.2 Zonal Winds;327
14.1.3.2.1;13.3.2.1 Indirect Methods;327
14.1.3.2.2;13.3.2.2 Direct Methods;328
14.1.3.2.2.1;Doppler Line Shifts;328
14.1.3.2.2.2;Cloud Tracking;329
14.1.3.2.2.3;Huygens Doppler Wind Experiment (DWE);330
14.1.3.2.2.4;Descent Imager/Spectral Radiometer (DISR);333
14.1.4;13.4 Meridional Circulations;333
14.1.4.1;13.4.1 Temperatures;334
14.1.4.2;13.4.2 Gas Composition;335
14.1.4.3;13.4.3 Aerosols and Condensates;336
14.1.4.4;13.4.4 In-situ Measurements;337
14.1.5;13.5 Surface-Atmosphere Coupling;338
14.1.5.1;13.5.1 Structure of PBL;338
14.1.5.2;13.5.2 Energy Exchange;339
14.1.5.3;13.5.3 Momentum Exchange;340
14.1.6;13.6 Waves and Their Effect on the General Circulation;341
14.1.6.1;13.6.1 Gravitational Tides;341
14.1.7;13.7 Titan’s General Circulation;342
14.1.7.1;13.7.1 Thermally Direct and Indirect Circulations;342
14.1.7.2;13.7.2 Zonal Circulation and Superrotation;344
14.1.8;13.8 Key Questions and Future Prospects;345
14.1.9;References;346
15;Chapter 14;351
15.1;Seasonal Change on Titan;351
15.1.1;14.1 Introduction;351
15.1.2;14.2 Titan’s Haze;352
15.1.2.1;14.2.1 Observations of Titan’s Main Haze;352
15.1.2.2;14.2.2 The Detached Haze;356
15.1.2.3;14.2.3 Polar Hood;356
15.1.3;14.3 Temperatures and Zonal Winds;357
15.1.4;14.4 Stratospheric Gases;359
15.1.5;14.5 Methane Meteorology;359
15.1.6;14.6 Models of Cloud Microphysics and Dynamics;363
15.1.7;14.7 Models of Seasonal Change;364
15.1.7.1;14.7.1 Stratospheric Modeling;364
15.1.7.1.1;14.7.1.1 Haze Models;364
15.1.7.1.2;14.7.1.2 Models of Seasonal Composition Changes;365
15.1.7.1.3;14.7.1.3 Temperature/Dynamics;365
15.1.7.1.4;14.7.1.4 Tropospheric Modeling – Global;365
15.1.8;14.8 Conclusions;367
15.1.9;References;368
16;Chapter 15;371
16.1;Mass Loss Processes in Titan’s Upper Atmosphere;371
16.1.1;15.1 Introduction;371
16.1.2;15.2 Atmospheric Escape;373
16.1.2.1;15.2.1 Thermal Escape;373
16.1.2.2;15.2.2 Hydrodynamic Escape;374
16.1.2.3;15.2.3 Photochemical-Induced Escape;374
16.1.2.4;15.2.4 Plasma-Induced Escape;374
16.1.3;15.3 Simulations of the Transition Region and Escape;375
16.1.3.1;15.3.1 Boltzmann Equation;376
16.1.3.2;15.3.2 Monte Carlo Simulations;376
16.1.4;15.4 Estimates of Escape Flux: Pre-Cassini;377
16.1.5;15.5 Estimates of the Escape Flux: Cassini Data;377
16.1.5.1;15.5.1 H 2 Escape;377
16.1.5.2;15.5.2 Carbon Mass Loss by Precipitation;378
16.1.5.3;15.5.3 Escape of Nitrogen and Carbon: Hot Recoil Models;378
16.1.5.4;15.5.4 Escape of Nitrogen and Carbon: Continuum Models;381
16.1.5.5;15.5.5 Summary of Mass Loss: Cassini Data;382
16.1.5.6;15.5.6 Monte Carlo Simulations: Tests of Continuum Models;382
16.1.6;15.6 Atmospheric Loss as Plasma and Plasma Heating: Cassini;384
16.1.7;15.7 Titan Mass Loss: Magnetospheric Implications;385
16.1.8;15.8 Summary;386
16.1.9;References;387
17;Chapter 16;390
17.1;Energy Deposition Processes in Titan’s Upper Atmosphere and Its Induced Magnetosphere;390
17.1.1;16.1 Introduction;390
17.1.1.1;16.1.1 Summary of Energy Input Sources to Titan’s Upper Atmosphere;393
17.1.1.2;16.1.2 Outline of Chapter and Relation to Other Chapters;394
17.1.2;16.2 Pertinent Instrument Characteristics, Observational Constraints and Observational Limitations;395
17.1.2.1;16.2.1 CAPS IMS, IBS and ELS;395
17.1.2.2;16.2.2 Cassini INMS;395
17.1.2.3;16.2.3 Cassini Magnetometer;397
17.1.2.4;16.2.4 Cassini RPWS and LP;397
17.1.2.5;16.2.5 Cassini MIMI Instrument;397
17.1.2.6;16.2.6 Cassini UVIS;398
17.1.2.7;16.2.7 Titan Observational Constraints and Limitations;398
17.1.3;16.3 Global Properties of Saturn’s Magnetosphere, and Importance of Solar Incidence-Ram-Angle (SRA);399
17.1.4;16.4 Models of Titan’s Interaction with Saturn’s Magnetosphere: Channeling of Energy Input to Upper Atmosphere: MHD Versus Hybrid Codes;403
17.1.4.1;16.4.1 MHD Simulations;404
17.1.4.2;16.4.2 Hybrid Simulations;406
17.1.5;16.5 Radio Science Observations of Titan’s Ionosphere and Its Height Dependence;409
17.1.5.1;16.5.1 Titan’s Ionospheric Layer as Observed by Voyager 1;409
17.1.5.2;16.5.2 Cassini Radio Science Observations of Titan’s Ionosphere;410
17.1.6;16.6 Solar Input to Titan’s Upper Atmosphere: Ionosphere Formation, Atmospheric Heating, Haze Layers and Non-Thermal Atmospheric Escape;410
17.1.6.1;16.6.1 Voyager 1 and Cassini UVIS Airglow Observations;410
17.1.7;16.7 Magnetospheric Interaction and Charged Particle Bombardment: Electrons, Ions and Pickup Ions;415
17.1.7.1;16.7.1 Titan’s Exosphere as Source of PickupIons, Mass Loading of Incoming Flow, Energy Input to Upper Atmosphere and Atmospheric Loss;415
17.1.7.1.1;16.7.1.1 Voyager 1 Observations and Modeling of Titan’s Exosphere;415
17.1.7.1.2;16.7.1.2 CAPS Observations of Pickup Ions and Titan’s Exosphere;416
17.1.7.1.3;16.7.1.3 Cassini ENA Imaging of Titan’s Exosphere;417
17.1.7.1.4;16.7.1.4 Cassini INMS Observations of Titan’s Lower Exosphere;420
17.1.7.1.5;16.7.1.5 Hydrodynamic Model and Non-Thermal Model of Titan Exospheric Escape Particles;420
17.1.7.2;16.7.2 Magnetospheric Electron Energy Input Versus Solar Input to Titan’s Ionosphere;421
17.1.7.2.1;16.7.2.1 Initial Cassini Observations of Titan’s Ionosphere;421
17.1.7.2.1.1;16.7.2.1.1 Cassini TA Flyby;421
17.1.7.2.1.2;16.7.2.1.2 Cassini T5 Flyby;423
17.1.7.2.1.3;16.7.2.1.3 Cassini T9 and T18 Flybys;427
17.1.7.3;16.7.3 Magnetospheric Heavy Ion and Suprathermal Ion Energy Input to Titan’s Upper Atmosphere;431
17.1.7.4;16.7.3.1 Voyager and Cassini Plasma Observations of Ion Precipitation with Titan’s Upper Atmosphere;431
17.1.7.5;16.7.3.2 T5 Ion Energy Deposition Results;433
17.1.8;16.8 Meteoric Ionization and Cosmic Rays: Energy Deposition at Lower Ionosphere and Thermosphere;435
17.1.8.1;16.8.1 Dust Particle Produced Ionization Layers;435
17.1.8.2;16.8.2 Galactic Cosmic Ray Ionization Layer;436
17.1.9;16.9 Heavy Ion Formation and Aerosol Production;439
17.1.9.1;16.9.1 Observations of Heavy Ions by Cassini;439
17.1.9.2;16.9.2 The Formation of Fullerenes and PAHs in Titan’s Upper Atmosphere;440
17.1.9.3;16.9.3 Role of Oxygen Input from Magnetosphere and Micro-Meteorites;441
17.1.9.4;16.9.4 Trapping of Free Oxygen and Hydroxyl Ions in Seed Particles;442
17.1.9.5;16.9.5 Transport to Lower Atmosphere and Surface as Aerosols;442
17.1.10;16.10 Conclusion and Future Outlook;444
17.1.11;References;445
18;Chapter 17;451
18.1;Titan in the Cassini–Huygens Extended Mission;451
18.1.1;17.1 Titan in the Cassini–Huygens Extended Mission;451
18.1.1.1;17.1.1 Overview;451
18.1.2;17.2 Interior Structure;454
18.1.2.1;17.2.1 Internal Magnetic Field;454
18.1.2.2;17.2.2 Internal Ocean;455
18.1.3;17.3 Surface Science;456
18.1.3.1;17.3.1 Coverage and Resolution;456
18.1.3.2;17.3.2 Targeted Scientifi c Investigations in the EM;459
18.1.3.2.1;17.3.2.1 Surface units;459
18.1.3.2.2;17.3.2.2 Surface Composition;459
18.1.3.2.3;17.3.2.3 Cryovolcanism;460
18.1.3.2.4;17.3.2.4 Dunes;460
18.1.3.2.5;17.3.2.5 Lakes and river channels;461
18.1.4;17.4 Atmospheric Investigations;461
18.1.4.1;17.4.1 Primary Mission Observations;462
18.1.4.2;17.4.2 Equinox Mission Scientifi c Investigations;463
18.1.4.2.1;17.4.2.1 Atmospheric Structure and Distribution of Hydrocarbons;463
18.1.4.2.2;17.4.2.2 Clouds and Haze;463
18.1.4.2.3;17.4.2.3 Atmospheric Dynamics;464
18.1.5;17.5 Titan’s Thermosphere and Ionosphere, and the Interaction of Titan’s Upper Atmosphere with Saturn’s Magnetosphere;464
18.1.5.1;17.5.1 Primary Mission Achievements;465
18.1.5.2;17.5.2 EM Major Scientifi c Goals;465
18.1.5.2.1;17.5.2.1 Complex Organic Formation in Titan’s Upper Atmosphere;466
18.1.5.2.2;17.5.2.2 Energetic Ion Precipitation;466
18.1.5.2.3;17.5.2.3 Oxygen Plasma Injection into Atmosphere;468
18.1.5.2.4;17.5.2.4 Geometry of the Induced Magnetic Field;468
18.1.6;17.6 The Solstice Mission;469
18.1.7;References;472
19;Chapter 18;474
19.1;Titan Beyond Cassini–Huygens;474
19.1.1;18.1 Introduction;474
19.1.2;18.2 Unresolved Science Questions;474
19.1.2.1;18.2.1 Our Pre-Cassini–Huygens Understanding;474
19.1.2.2;18.2.2 Post-Cassini Science Results;475
19.1.2.2.1;18.2.2.1 Cassini’s Prime Mission;475
19.1.2.2.1.1;Titan’s Interior Structure;475
19.1.2.2.1.2;Surface Science;475
19.1.2.2.1.3;Atmospheric Science;475
19.1.2.2.1.4;Upper Atmosphere and Its Interaction with Saturn’s Magnetosphere;476
19.1.2.2.2;18.2.2.2 Extended Mission and Cassini Solstice Mission science;476
19.1.2.3;18.2.3 Unresolved Science Issues During and After the Cassini–Huygens Era;476
19.1.2.3.1;18.2.3.1 Exploring Titan as an Earth-Like System;477
19.1.2.3.2;18.2.3.2 Titan’s Organic Inventory and Astrobiological Potential;477
19.1.2.3.3;18.2.3.3 Titan’s Origin and Evolution;478
19.1.3;18.3 Future Missions;478
19.1.3.1;18.3.1 The Pre-Cassini Era;478
19.1.3.2;18.3.2 The Present Epoch;479
19.1.3.2.1;18.3.2.1 NASA Studies;479
19.1.3.2.2;18.3.2.2 ESA Studies;479
19.1.3.2.3;18.3.2.3 Joint Studies – The Titan Saturn System Mission;480
19.1.4;18.4 Summary;481
19.1.5;References;482
20;Chapter 19;484
20.1;Mapping Products of Titan’s Surface;484
20.1.1;19.1 Introduction;484
20.1.2;19.2 Huygens Image Data;486
20.1.3;19.3 Global Maps Derived from ISS Images;489
20.1.4;19.4 Global Maps Derived from VIMS Observations;489
20.1.5;19.5 Global Maps Derived from RADAR Measurements;495
20.1.6;19.6 Thematic Maps Derived from Cassini Data;498
20.1.7;19.7 Titan’s Nomenclature;502
20.1.8;References;504
21;Appendix;506
22;Index;519