Burrow MD / Watson Comprehensive Handbook of Iodine

Nutritional, Biochemical, Pathological and Therapeutic Aspects
1. Auflage 2009
ISBN: 978-0-08-092086-3
Verlag: Elsevier Science & Techn.
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: 6 - ePub Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 1334 Seiten

Over two billion people worldwide are at risk for the spectrum of disorders known as 'The Iodine Deficiency Disorders.' 1-10% will suffer cretinism; 5-30% will have some sort of brain damage or neurological impairment and 30-70% will be hypothyroid.
The causes of iodine deficiencies can be considered from both simplistic and more complex perspectives: From the leaching of iodine from soil resulting in crops with low iodine content to malnutrition resulting in impaired iodine absorption. Poor dietary diversification and impoverished socio-economic development can also lead to iodine deficiencies.
Although it is possible to diagnose and treat deficiencies, there is still an ongoing dialogue regarding the detailed molecular pathology of iodine homeostatis, how hypothyroidism impacts the body tissues, and efficient diagnosis and treatment of the Iodine Deficiency Disorders.
This Handbook provides a resource of information on the various pathways and processes based on different countries or diseases. Because there is a constant flow of new information on iodine and related disorders, the goal of this Handbook is to provide a base of scientific information upon which additional knowledge can be applied.
Key Features:
*Provides important information on one of the most common micro-nutrient deficiencies in the world, the most important 'single nutrient-multiple consequences' paradigm today
*Includes information on iodine-related diseases, including those that are common, preventable and treatable
*Provides insight from a broad perspective of viewpoints -- from subcellular transports to economic impact

Autoren/Hrsg.

Burrow MD, Gerard N.

Watson, Ronald Ross

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Front Cover;1
2;Comprehensive Handbook of Iodine: Nutritional, Biochemical, Pathological and Therapeutic Aspects;4
3;Copyright Page;5
4;Contents;6
5;Foreword;14
6;Contributors;16
7;Section 1: Analytical Techniques;24
7.1;Chapter 1. Determination of Iodine in Seawater: Methods and Applications;26
7.1.1;Abstract;26
7.1.2;Abbreviations;26
7.1.3;Introduction;26
7.1.4;Capillary Electrophoresis;27
7.1.5;Chromatography;29
7.1.6;Other Methods;33
7.1.7;Summary Points;35
7.1.8;References;35
7.2;Chapter 2. Assay of Iodine in Foodstuffs: Methods and Applications;38
7.2.1;Abstract;38
7.2.2;Abbreviations;38
7.2.3;Introduction;38
7.2.4;Obtaining Iodine Intake Data;39
7.2.5;Analytical Methods for Iodine Determination in Foodstuffs and Related Materials;41
7.2.6;Choice of an Analytical Method Versus the Iodine Level in Foodstuffs and Diets;46
7.2.7;Conclusions;48
7.2.8;References;48
7.3;Chapter 3. Determination of Iodine In Vivo and In Vitro by X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis: Methodology and Applications;52
7.3.1;Abstract;52
7.3.2;Abbreviations;52
7.3.3;Introduction;52
7.3.4;X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis;53
7.3.5;Preservation of In Vitro Samples;55
7.3.6;Choice of Analyzed Volume;56
7.3.7;Positioning;56
7.3.8;Calibration;57
7.3.9;Radiation Dose;57
7.3.10;Summary Points;58
7.3.11;References;59
7.4;Chapter 4. Plasma Analytes for Determination of Thyroid Status;62
7.4.1;Abstract;62
7.4.2;List of Abbreviations;62
7.4.3;Introduction;62
7.4.4;Thyroid Hormone Secretion;63
7.4.5;Measurement of Thyroid Hormones;64
7.4.6;Thyroid-Stimulating Hormone;65
7.4.7;Investigation of Cause and Monitoring of Treatment;66
7.4.8;Tests Reflecting the Actions of Thyroid Hormones on Body Tissues;68
7.4.9;Tests not Used as Part of Routine Clinical Practice;68
7.4.10;Summary;68
7.4.11;References;68
7.5;Chapter 5. Interpretation of Thyroid Function Tests and Their Relationship to Iodine Nutrition: Changes in TSH, Free T4 and Free T3 Resulting from Iodine Deficiency and Iodine Excess;70
7.5.1;Abstract;70
7.5.2;Abbreviations;70
7.5.3;Introduction;71
7.5.4;General Interpretation of Thyroid Function Tests;71
7.5.5;Thyroid Function Tests in Iodine Deficiency;73
7.5.6;Thyroid Function Tests in Iodine Excess;75
7.5.7;Effect of Iron Deficiency on Iodine and Thyroid Function;76
7.5.8;Summary Points;76
7.5.9;References;77
7.6;Chapter 6. Thyroglobulin as an Indicator of Iodine Intake;78
7.6.1;Abstract;78
7.6.2;Abbreviations;78
7.6.3;Introduction;78
7.6.4;Thyroglobulin: The Major Iodoglycoprotein of the Thyroid Gland;79
7.6.5;Determination of Circulating Thyroglobulin;81
7.6.6;Thyroglobulin and Iodine Intake;82
7.6.7;Our Population Studies Concerning Iodine Intake and Serum Tg Concentrations;84
7.6.8;Summary Points;85
7.6.9;Acknowledgment;85
7.6.10;References;85
7.7;Chapter 7. Computer Systems for Monitoring Effects of Iodine/Thyroid Status in Populations;88
7.7.1;Abstract;88
7.7.2;Abbreviations;88
7.7.3;Introduction;88
7.7.4;TSH Screening in Neonates;89
7.7.5;Hospital Records;89
7.7.6;Example of Record Linkage;89
7.7.7;Example of a Specific Register Database;90
7.7.8;Summary Points;93
7.7.9;References;93
8;Section 2: General Aspects of Iodine Sources and Intakes in the Diet, Main Routes of Iodine Metabolism and Metabolic Roles;94
8.1;Section (2.1) Iodine Cycle and Chemistry;96
8.1.1;Chapter 8. Iodine in the Air: Origin, Transformation and Exchange to Mammals;98
8.1.1.1;Abstract;98
8.1.1.2;Abbreviations;98
8.1.1.3;Introduction;98
8.1.1.4;Sources and Measurements of Atmospheric Iodine;99
8.1.1.5;Photolysis and Gas-Phase Iodine Chemistry;99
8.1.1.6;Aerosol Chemistry and Particle Formation;101
8.1.1.7;Health and Environment Impacts;103
8.1.1.8;Radioactive Iodine: Atmospheric Sources and Consequences;103
8.1.1.9;Summary Points;104
8.1.1.10;References;105
8.1.2;Chapter 9. Iodine and Iodine Species in Seawater: Speciation, Distribution and Dynamics;106
8.1.2.1;Abstract;106
8.1.2.2;Abbreviations;106
8.1.2.3;Introduction;106
8.1.2.4;Distribution of Iodine Species in Seawater;107
8.1.2.5;Factors Controlling Speciation and Distribution in Seawater;110
8.1.2.6;Summary Points;113
8.1.2.7;References;113
8.1.3;Chapter 10. Geochemical Cycling of Iodine Species in Soils;116
8.1.3.1;Abstract;116
8.1.3.2;Abbreviations;116
8.1.3.3;Introduction;116
8.1.3.4;Materials and Methods;118
8.1.3.5;Results and Discussion;120
8.1.3.6;Summary Points;126
8.1.3.7;Acknowledgments;127
8.1.3.8;References;127
8.1.4;Chapter 11. Transfers of Iodine in the Soil–Plant–Air System: Solid–Liquid Partitioning, Migration, Plant Uptake and Volatilization;130
8.1.4.1;Abstract;130
8.1.4.2;Abbreviations;130
8.1.4.3;Introduction;130
8.1.4.4;Iodine in Soils;130
8.1.4.5;Behavior of Iodine in the Soil–Plant–Air System;131
8.1.4.6;Summary Points;139
8.1.4.7;References;139
8.1.5;Chapter 12. Iodine in the Ecosystem: An Overview;142
8.1.5.1;Abstract;142
8.1.5.2;The Customization of Life Histories;142
8.1.5.3;Iodine and Life in the Ocean;143
8.1.5.4;Iodine and Thyroid Function;143
8.1.5.5;Decoupling: Iodine in the Modern Era;144
8.1.5.6;Iodine: Its Implications for Disease and Therapy;144
8.1.5.7;Summary Points;145
8.1.5.8;References;145
8.1.6;Chapter 13. The Nature of Iodine in Drinking Water;148
8.1.6.1;Abstract;148
8.1.6.2;Abbreviation;148
8.1.6.3;Introduction;148
8.1.6.4;Early Investigations of Iodine in Drinking Water;148
8.1.6.5;Humic Substances in Marine Sediments and Groundwater;149
8.1.6.6;Aspects of Iodine Chemistry;150
8.1.6.7;Iodine in Marine Sediments and Water;150
8.1.6.8;Geological Influences on Aquifers;151
8.1.6.9;Geology: The Danish Example;151
8.1.6.10;Iodine in Drinking Water: The Danish Example;151
8.1.6.11;Iodine in Humic Substances;152
8.1.6.12;Iodine and Processing of Drinking Water;153
8.1.6.13;Bioavailability of Iodine in Humic Substances in Drinking Water;153
8.1.6.14;Goiter and Iodine in Humic Substances in Drinking Water;155
8.1.6.15;Conclusions and Perspectives;155
8.1.6.16;Summary Points;155
8.1.6.17;References;156
8.1.7;Chapter 14. Application of Iodine Water Purification Tablets: Iodine's Efficacy against Cryptosporidium parvum;158
8.1.7.1;Abstract;158
8.1.7.2;Abbreviations;158
8.1.7.3;Summary Points;160
8.1.7.4;References;161
8.1.8;Chapter 15. Iodine Speciation in Foodstuffs, Tissues and Environmental Samples: Iodine Species and Analytical Method;162
8.1.8.1;Abstract;162
8.1.8.2;Abbreviations;162
8.1.8.3;Introduction;162
8.1.8.4;Speciation of Iodine in Water;163
8.1.8.5;Chemical Speciation of Iodine in Air;166
8.1.8.6;Chemical Speciation of Iodine in Tissues and Biological Samples;167
8.1.8.7;Chemical Speciation of Iodine in Foodstuffs and Environmental Samples;168
8.1.8.8;Bioavailability and Toxicity of Iodine Species;170
8.1.8.9;Summary Points;171
8.1.8.10;References;172
8.1.9;Chapter 16. Iodine in Farm Animals;174
8.1.9.1;Abstract;174
8.1.9.2;Abbreviations;174
8.1.9.3;Introduction;175
8.1.9.4;Iodine Deficiency due to Low Iodine Intake and Iodine Antagonists;176
8.1.9.5;Requirements/recommendations for iodine supplementation;179
8.1.9.6;Response criteria and dose–response studies of iodine requirement in farm animals;179
8.1.9.7;The Effect of Iodine Intake on the Iodine Content of Eggs, Meat and Milk;184
8.1.9.8;Effects of Excessively High Dietary Iodine Intake on Farm Animals and Poultry;186
8.1.9.9;Summary Points;189
8.1.9.10;References;190
8.1.10;Chapter 17. Radiochemistry of Iodine: Relevance to Health and Disease;194
8.1.10.1;Abstract;194
8.1.10.2;Abbreviations;194
8.1.10.3;Introduction;194
8.1.10.4;Chemistry of Iodine: Relevance to Radiochemical Studies and Nuclear Properties of Iodine Isotopes;195
8.1.10.5;Production of Iodine Isotopes;197
8.1.10.6;Radiochemical Analysis of Iodine;198
8.1.10.7;Neutron Activation Analysis;200
8.1.10.8;Protection from Radioiodine Exposure under Nuclear Accident Conditions;203
8.1.10.9;Summary Points;203
8.1.10.10;References;204
8.2;Section (2.2) Physiology, Metabolism and Biochemistry;206
8.2.1;Chapter 18. Retention of Iodine in the Body: Biological Half-Life of Iodine in the Human Body;208
8.2.1.1;Abstract;208
8.2.1.2;Abbreviations;208
8.2.1.3;Introduction;208
8.2.1.4;Measuring the Biological Half-Life;209
8.2.1.5;Summary Points;214
8.2.1.6;References;214
8.2.2;Chapter 19. Mathematical Models of Human Iodine Metabolism, Including Assessment of Human Total Body Iodine Content;216
8.2.2.1;Abbreviations;216
8.2.2.2;The Riggs Model;216
8.2.2.3;Models of Iodine within the Thyroid Gland;216
8.2.2.4;Models of Peripheral Thyroid Hormone Distribution: Volume of Distribution;217
8.2.2.5;Models of Thyroid Hormone Distribution that include Rates of Peripheral Tissue Metabolism;217
8.2.2.6;Iodide Kinetics;218
8.2.2.7;Usefulness of these Models;219
8.2.2.8;Application of the Modeling Approach: Determination of Human Total Body Iodine;220
8.2.2.9;References;220
8.2.3;Chapter 20. Iodine Transfer Through Mother's Milk: The Influence of Bromide;222
8.2.3.1;Abstract;222
8.2.3.2;Abbreviations;222
8.2.3.3;Introduction;222
8.2.3.4;Bromine (Bromide) Essentiality vs. Toxicity;223
8.2.3.5;Influence of a High Bromide Intake in Lactating Rat Dams on Iodine and Bromide Transfer to the Suckling Through Mother's Milk;223
8.2.3.6;Effects of a High Bromide Intake in Lactating Rat Dams on Their Own Iodine Metabolism;224
8.2.3.7;Impact of a High Bromide Intake in Lactating Rat Dams on Their Performance During the Lactation Period;225
8.2.3.8;Impact of a High Bromide Intake in Lactating Rat Dams on the Well-being of Their Suckling;226
8.2.3.9;Summary Points;228
8.2.3.10;Acknowledgments;228
8.2.3.11;References;228
8.2.4;Chapter 21. Cellular Iodine Transport: Body Distribution of the Human Sodium Iodide Symporter;230
8.2.4.1;Abstract;230
8.2.4.2;Abbreviations;230
8.2.4.3;Introduction;230
8.2.4.4;Methods to Detect NIS Expression;231
8.2.4.5;The Sodium Iodide Symporter;232
8.2.4.6;Thyroid Gland;233
8.2.4.7;Mammary Gland;234
8.2.4.8;Placenta;234
8.2.4.9;NIS Expression in the Stomach and Kidney;235
8.2.4.10;Salivary and Lacrimal Glands;235
8.2.4.11;Other Tissues;235
8.2.4.12;Conclusion;236
8.2.4.13;Summary Points;236
8.2.4.14;References;236
8.2.5;Chapter 22. Sodium Iodide Symporter (NIS) in Gastric Mucosa: Gastric Iodide Secretion;238
8.2.5.1;Abstract;238
8.2.5.2;Abbreviations;238
8.2.5.3;Introduction;238
8.2.5.4;NIS Background;239
8.2.5.5;Gastric NIS Detection and Distribution;239
8.2.5.6;Gastric NIS during Development;240
8.2.5.7;Gastric Iodide Transport Mediated by NIS;240
8.2.5.8;Regulation of Gastric NIS;241
8.2.5.9;Functional Role of Gastric NIS;242
8.2.5.10;Gastric Cancer and NIS;242
8.2.5.11;Summary Points;242
8.2.5.12;References;243
8.2.6;Chapter 23. Regulation and Enhancement of Endogenous Sodium Iodide Symporter Expression: NIS Regulatory Pathways in Thyroid and Breast Cancer;244
8.2.6.1;Abstract;244
8.2.6.2;Abbreviations;244
8.2.6.3;Structure of the Human and Rat NIS Gene;245
8.2.6.4;Characterization of the NIS Upstream Enhancer;246
8.2.6.5;Transcriptional Regulation of NIS in Thyroid Cancer;246
8.2.6.6;NIS Gene Regulation in Breast Cancer;247
8.2.6.7;Enhancement of the NIS Expression in Tissue Culture Cells;247
8.2.6.8;TSH Receptor Stimulation in Thyroid Cells;247
8.2.6.9;Effects of Redifferentiation Agents on Thyroid NIS;250
8.2.6.10;NIS Expression in Lactating Mammary Glands;250
8.2.6.11;Enhancement of NIS Expression in Breast Cancer Cells;250
8.2.6.12;NIS Expression in Placenta-Derived Cells;251
8.2.6.13;Summary Points;251
8.2.6.14;Acknowledgements;252
8.2.6.15;References;252
8.2.7;Chapter 24. Pendred's Syndrome: Deficiency in Iodide Transport;254
8.2.7.1;Abstract;254
8.2.7.2;Abbreviations;254
8.2.7.3;Introduction;254
8.2.7.4;Pendrin in the Kidney;261
8.2.7.5;Pendrin in the Inner Ear;261
8.2.7.6;Pendrin in Other Tissues;262
8.2.7.7;Summary Points;262
8.2.7.8;Acknowledgment;262
8.2.7.9;References;262
8.2.8;Chapter 25. Autoregulation of Thyroid Growth and Function by Iodine: Independent Regulation of the Thyroid Gland by Iodocompounds;266
8.2.8.1;Abstract;266
8.2.8.2;Abbreviations;266
8.2.8.3;Introduction;266
8.2.8.4;Thyroid Iodolipids;267
8.2.8.5;Iodolipid Effects: d-Iodolactone;268
8.2.8.6;Iodolipid Effects: 2-Iodohexadecanal;269
8.2.8.7;Summary Points;269
8.2.8.8;References;270
8.2.9;Chapter 26. Is Iodine an Antioxidant and Antiproliferative Agent for the Mammary and Prostate Glands?;272
8.2.9.1;Abstract;272
8.2.9.2;Abbreviations;272
8.2.9.3;Introduction;272
8.2.9.4;Mammary and Prostate Similarities;273
8.2.9.5;Iodine in Normal Tissues;273
8.2.9.6;Reproductive Factors and Cancer Risk;274
8.2.9.7;Iodine in Neoplastic Glands;276
8.2.9.8;Summary Points;278
8.2.9.9;Acknowledgments;279
8.2.9.10;References;279
8.2.10;Chapter 27. Uncertainty of Iodine Particulate Deposition in the Respiratory Tract;282
8.2.10.1;Abstract;282
8.2.10.2;Abbreviations;282
8.2.10.3;Introduction;282
8.2.10.4;Particulate Deposition in the Respiratory Tract;283
8.2.10.5;Parameter Distributions;285
8.2.10.6;Uncertainty of Regional Deposition Fraction;287
8.2.10.7;Parameter Sensitivity Analysis;289
8.2.10.8;Comparison of Results with Other Investigators;291
8.2.10.9;Conclusions;295
8.2.10.10;Summary Points;295
8.2.10.11;References;295
8.2.11;Chapter 28. The Relationship between Thiocyanate and Iodine;298
8.2.11.1;Abstract;298
8.2.11.2;Abbreviations;298
8.2.11.3;Introduction;298
8.2.11.4;Thiocyanate and NIS;298
8.2.11.5;Thiocyanate and Tobacco Smoking;299
8.2.11.6;Interaction between Smoking and Iodine Intake;299
8.2.11.7;Thiocyanate and Iodine in Milk;299
8.2.11.8;Maternal Smoking and Iodine Nutrition of the Breast-Fed Child;301
8.2.11.9;Thiocyanate from Food: The Experience from Central Africa;302
8.2.11.10;Conclusion;303
8.2.11.11;Summary Points;303
8.2.11.12;References;303
8.2.12;Chapter 29. Environmental Perchlorate and the Thyroid;306
8.2.12.1;Abstract;306
8.2.12.2;Abbreviations;306
8.2.12.3;Summary Points;307
8.2.12.4;References;307
8.2.13;Chapter 30. Iodate and Perchlorate in Bottled Water: Methods for Discovery and Impact on Humans;310
8.2.13.1;Abstract;310
8.2.13.2;Abbreviations;310
8.2.13.3;Iodate;310
8.2.13.4;Perchlorate;311
8.2.13.5;Perchlorate Analysis: Premodern Era;311
8.2.13.6;Perchlorate Analysis: Modern Era;312
8.2.13.7;Perchlorate Analysis: Recent Advances;313
8.2.13.8;Perchlorate and Iodate in Water;314
8.2.13.9;Summary Points;316
8.2.13.10;References;316
8.2.14;Chapter 31. Dioxins, PCBs, and Iodine: Effects on Synthesis and Metabolism of the Iodine Containing Thyroid Hormones;318
8.2.14.1;Abstract;318
8.2.14.2;Abbreviations;318
8.2.14.3;Introduction;318
8.2.14.4;General Mechanisms of Action of Dioxins and Dioxin-Like PCBs;319
8.2.14.5;Effects of PCBs on Circulating Iodine Containing Thyroid Hormones;319
8.2.14.6;Summary Points;323
8.2.14.7;References;323
8.2.15;Chapter 32. Iodide Effects on the Thyroid: Biochemical, Physiological, Pharmacological and Clinical Effects of Iodide in the Thyroid;326
8.2.15.1;Abstract;326
8.2.15.2;Abbreviations;326
8.2.15.3;Introduction;326
8.2.15.4;Effects of Iodide on the Thyroid;327
8.2.15.5;Models for the Study of Iodide Action;328
8.2.15.6;Mechanism(s) of Action of Iodide;329
8.2.15.7;Clinical Significance of the Effects of Iodide;334
8.2.15.8;Summary Points;335
8.2.15.9;References;335
8.2.16;Chapter 33. Influences of Iodine on the Immunogenicity of Thyroglobulin;338
8.2.16.1;Abstract;338
8.2.16.2;Abbreviations;338
8.2.16.3;Introduction;338
8.2.16.4;Categories of Iodinated Pathogenic T-Cell Determinants in Tg;339
8.2.16.5;Iodine and Peripheral T-Cell Reactivity to Tg;341
8.2.16.6;Abs Recognizing Iodinated Determinants as Regulators of Tg-Specific T-Cell Reactivity;342
8.2.16.7;Does Tg Iodination Play a Role in the Pathogenesis of Human Thyroiditis?;343
8.2.16.8;Summary Points;344
8.2.16.9;Acknowledgment;344
8.2.16.10;References;344
8.2.17;Chapter 34. Goiter in the Elderly: The Role of Iodine;346
8.2.17.1;Abstract;346
8.2.17.2;Abbreviations;346
8.2.17.3;Introduction;346
8.2.17.4;Types and Causes of Goiters;346
8.2.17.5;Clinical Evaluation;347
8.2.17.6;Treatment;349
8.2.17.7;Summary Points;351
8.2.17.8;Acknowledgment;351
8.2.17.9;References;351
8.3;Section (2.3) Nutrition and Dietary Aspects;354
8.3.1;Chapter 35. Iodine Intake and Food Choice;356
8.3.1.1;Abstract;356
8.3.1.2;Abbreviations;356
8.3.1.3;Introduction;356
8.3.1.4;Iodine Content in Food;356
8.3.1.5;Main Dietary Sources of Iodine;356
8.3.1.6;Intake in Different Countries with Different Dietary Characteristics;357
8.3.1.7;Arctic Food Choice and Iodine Intake;358
8.3.1.8;Iodine Intake in Subjects with Different Dietary Patterns within a Country;358
8.3.1.9;Iodine Intake in Subjects with Special Diets;359
8.3.1.10;Conclusions;359
8.3.1.11;Summary Points;359
8.3.1.12;References;359
8.3.2;Chapter 36. Iodine Mineral Water and its Therapeutic Use in Health Resorts: Iodine Consumption from Natural Mineral Waters and its Effect on the Body;362
8.3.2.1;Abstract;362
8.3.2.2;Abbreviations;362
8.3.2.3;Introduction;362
8.3.2.4;Extrathyroidal Effect of Iodine Treatment;366
8.3.2.5;Summary;367
8.3.2.6;References;367
8.3.3;Chapter 37. The Iodine Content of Foods and Diets: Norwegian Perspectives;368
8.3.3.1;Abstract;368
8.3.3.2;Abbreviations;368
8.3.3.3;Introduction;368
8.3.3.4;Dietary Sources of Iodine;368
8.3.3.5;Iodine Recommendations;370
8.3.3.6;Studies Assessing Iodine Nutrition;370
8.3.3.7;Dietary Iodine Intake in Children;372
8.3.3.8;Thyroid Disorders;372
8.3.3.9;Iodine Nutrition in Norway;373
8.3.3.10;Summary Points;374
8.3.3.11;References;374
8.3.4;Chapter 38. Correlation between Soy Phytoestrogens and Thyroid Laboratory Parameters: Implications for Iodine Nutrition;376
8.3.4.1;Abstract;376
8.3.4.2;Abbreviations;376
8.3.4.3;Introduction;377
8.3.4.4;Soy Isoflavones;377
8.3.4.5;Isoflavonoids as Inhibitors of Thyroid Peroxidase;379
8.3.4.6;Soy Isoflavonoids and Deiodinases;379
8.3.4.7;Effect of Soy Isoflavonoids on Thyroid Hormone Transport;379
8.3.4.8;Soy Isoflavones and Hormone Signaling;379
8.3.4.9;How Thyroid Hormone Levels Correlate with Actual Soy Isoflavone Concentration in Children;380
8.3.4.10;The Effect of Short-Term Soy Consumption on Thyroid Hormone Levels;382
8.3.4.11;General Conclusion;385
8.3.4.12;Summary Points;385
8.3.4.13;References;385
8.3.5;Chapter 39. Knowledge of Iodine Nutrition;388
8.3.5.1;Abstract;388
8.3.5.2;Abbreviations;388
8.3.5.3;Introduction;388
8.3.5.4;Iodine Knowledge as a Process Indicator;389
8.3.5.5;Iodine Knowledge of Role Players;389
8.3.5.6;Assessment of Knowledge of Iodine Nutrition;391
8.3.5.7;Discrepancy between Iodine Knowledge and Behavior;392
8.3.5.8;The Role of Iodine Knowledge in Mandatory and Voluntary Iodization Programs;392
8.3.5.9;Improving Knowledge of Iodine Nutrition;392
8.3.5.10;References;393
8.3.6;Chapter 40. Iodine Metabolism and Parenteral Nutrition;394
8.3.6.1;Abstract;394
8.3.6.2;Abbreviations;394
8.3.6.3;Introduction;394
8.3.6.4;Iodine Metabolism and Requirements;395
8.3.6.5;Iodine Balance and Parenterally Fed Preterm Infants;396
8.3.6.6;Iodine Insufficiency;398
8.3.6.7;Cochrane Reviews;398
8.3.6.8;Iodine Excess;398
8.3.6.9;Iodinated Contrast Media and Central Venous Catheters;399
8.3.6.10;Iodinated Skin Disinfectants;399
8.3.6.11;Iodinated Contrast Media Exposure and Transient Hypothyroidism;400
8.3.6.12;UK Use of Iodine in Obstetric and Neonatal Units;400
8.3.6.13;Brain Development and Thyroxine;400
8.3.6.14;Transient Hypothyroxinemia and Preventative Strategies;401
8.3.6.15;Summary Points;401
8.3.6.16;Acknowledgments;402
8.3.6.17;References;402
8.3.7;Chapter 41. Iodine Content of Standard Infant Formula and Specialized Enteral Preparations;406
8.3.7.1;Abstract;406
8.3.7.2;Abbreviations;406
8.3.7.3;Introduction;406
8.3.7.4;Standard Formula for Term and Preterm Infants;407
8.3.7.5;Specialized Feeds for Phenylketonuria;407
8.3.7.6;Specialized Feeds for Tyrosinaemia;417
8.3.7.7;Specialized Feeds for Maple Syrup Urine Disease;418
8.3.7.8;Specialized Feeds for Methylmalonic Acidemia and Proprionic Acidemia;419
8.3.7.9;Specialized Feeds for Glutaric Aciduria Type I;420
8.3.7.10;Specialized Feeds for Isovaleric Acidemia and Disorders of Leucine Metabolism;420
8.3.7.11;Specialized Feeds for Homocystinuria;421
8.3.7.12;Specialized Feeds for Miscellaneous Disorders of Amino Acid Metabolism;421
8.3.7.13;Special Foods for Conditions of Intolerance;421
8.3.7.14;Summary Points;422
8.3.7.15;References;423
8.4;Section (2.4) Iodine Metabolism;424
8.4.1;Chapter 42. Trimester-Specific Changes in Maternal Thyroid Hormones: Implications for Iodine Nutrition;426
8.4.1.1;Abstract;426
8.4.1.2;Abbreviations;426
8.4.1.3;Introduction;426
8.4.1.4;Trimester-Specific Changes in Maternal Thyroid Hormones;429
8.4.1.5;Trimester-Specific Changes in Maternal Thyroid Hormones: Implications for Iodine Nutrition;430
8.4.1.6;Summary;431
8.4.1.7;Summary Points;431
8.4.1.8;Acknowledgments;431
8.4.1.9;References;431
8.4.2;Chapter 43. The Relationship between Population Iodine Statistics and Iodine Status of Individuals: A Possible Approach for More Comprehensive Characterization of Iodine Nutritional Status;434
8.4.2.1;Abstract;434
8.4.2.2;Abbreviations;434
8.4.2.3;Monitoring Iodine Status;434
8.4.2.4;Epidemiological Criteria for Assessing the Severity of IDD;435
8.4.2.5;Survey Methods Monitoring IDD;435
8.4.2.6;Controversies in Determining UI and Confounder for Assessing UI as a Risk Factor for Thyroid Diseases;435
8.4.2.7;Statistical Considerations;436
8.4.2.8;Current Global Iodine Population Status;437
8.4.2.9;Iodine Status in Different Age Groups;437
8.4.2.10;A Possible Approach for Full Characterization of Iodine Nutrition Status;437
8.4.2.11;Results of a Comprehensive Prospective Assessment of Iodine Status in Leipzig;438
8.4.2.12;What is the Meaning of Population Iodine Statistics (UI) for Individual Iodine Status?;442
8.4.2.13;Summary Points;442
8.4.2.14;References;442
8.4.3;Chapter 44. Variations in Iodine Excretion in Healthy Individuals;444
8.4.3.1;Abstract;444
8.4.3.2;Abbreviations;444
8.4.3.3;Introduction;444
8.4.3.4;Components of Variation;444
8.4.3.5;Variation in Urinary Iodine Excretion;445
8.4.3.6;Variation in Urinary Iodine Excretion and Studies of Iodine Nutrition;447
8.4.3.7;Conclusions;450
8.4.3.8;Summary Points;450
8.4.3.9;References;451
8.4.4;Chapter 45. Assessment of Iodine Intake and Iodine Status in Vegans;452
8.4.4.1;Abstract;452
8.4.4.2;Abbreviations;452
8.4.4.3;Introduction;452
8.4.4.4;Sources of Iodine in the Diet;452
8.4.4.5;Assessment of Iodine Intake in Vegans;454
8.4.4.6;Assessment of Iodine Status in Vegans;457
8.4.4.7;Conclusion;458
8.4.4.8;Summary Points;458
8.4.4.9;References;459
8.4.5;Chapter 46. Isotopes of Iodine in Thyroid and Urine: Source, Application, Level and Determination;460
8.4.5.1;Abstract;460
8.4.5.2;Abbreviations;460
8.4.5.3;Introduction;460
8.4.5.4;Sources and Production of Iodine Isotopes;460
8.4.5.5;Utilization of Iodine Isotopes;463
8.4.5.6;Level of Iodine Isotopes in Thyroid and Urine;464
8.4.5.7;Determination of Iodine Isotopes in the Thyroid and Urine;467
8.4.5.8;Radiation Risk of Radioisotopes of Iodine in Thyroid;468
8.4.5.9;Summary Points;469
8.4.5.10;References;469
8.4.6;Chapter 47. The U-Shaped Curve of Iodine Intake and Thyroid Disorders;472
8.4.6.1;Abstract;472
8.4.6.2;Abbreviations;472
8.4.6.3;Introduction;472
8.4.6.4;Iodine Deficiency and Disease;472
8.4.6.5;Diseases that may be More Common with a Higher Iodine Intake;474
8.4.6.6;Practical Consequences for Iodization Programs;475
8.4.6.7;Conclusion;477
8.4.6.8;Summary Points;477
8.4.6.9;References;477
9;Section 3: Pathological Aspects of Iodine Deficiency;480
9.1;Section (3.1) General Aspects of Pathology;482
9.1.1;Chapter 48. Iodine Deficiency: The Extent of the Problem;484
9.1.1.1;Abstract;484
9.1.1.2;Abbreviations;484
9.1.1.3;Introduction;484
9.1.1.4;Assessment Techniques: Measuring the Extent of the Problem;485
9.1.1.5;Historical Perspective on the Magnitude of Iodine Deficiency Throughout the World;486
9.1.1.6;Current Extent of Iodine Deficiency;486
9.1.1.7;Strategies for the Control of Iodine Deficiency;489
9.1.1.8;Conclusions;489
9.1.1.9;Summary Points;489
9.1.1.10;References;490
9.1.2;Chapter 49. Iodine Deficiency in Pregnancy: Iodine Deficiency and Supplementation in Pregnancy;492
9.1.2.1;Abstract;492
9.1.2.2;Abbreviations;492
9.1.2.3;Introduction;492
9.1.2.4;Pathophysiology of Iodine Deficiency in Pregnancy;492
9.1.2.5;Clinical Studies of Iodine Deficiency in Pregnancy;494
9.1.2.6;Iodine Requirements During Pregnancy;496
9.1.2.7;Current Studies of Iodine Status;496
9.1.2.8;Iodine Supplementation in Pregnancy;497
9.1.2.9;Conclusions;497
9.1.2.10;Summary Points;497
9.1.2.11;References;497
9.1.3;Chapter 50. Iodine Nutrition and Iodine Deficiency in Term and Preterm Newborns: Iodine Nutrition in Newborns;500
9.1.3.1;Abstract;500
9.1.3.2;Abbreviations;500
9.1.3.3;Introduction;500
9.1.3.4;Iodine Requirement in Neonates;501
9.1.3.5;Role of Thyroid Hormones during Neonatal Life;501
9.1.3.6;Effects of Thyroid Hormones on the Human Central Nervous System during Fetal and Postnatal Life;501
9.1.3.7;Iodine Deficiency and Thyroid Function in Newborns;502
9.1.3.8;Iodine Content in Human Milk;502
9.1.3.9;Iodine Content in Premature and Infant Formulas: Iodine Intake in Newborns;502
9.1.3.10;Iodine Excretion into the Urine;503
9.1.3.11;Iodine Intake and Thyroid Function;503
9.1.3.12;Iodine Deficiency in Preterm Babies Born at less than 30 Weeks of Gestation and Alterations in their Neurodevelopment;504
9.1.3.13;Excess of Iodine during the Neonatal Period;505
9.1.3.14;Summary;505
9.1.3.15;Summary Points;507
9.1.3.16;References;507
9.1.4;Chapter 51. Oxidative Damage in Iodine Deficiency;510
9.1.4.1;Abstract;510
9.1.4.2;Abbreviations;510
9.1.4.3;Introduction;510
9.1.4.4;Oxidative Stress and the Thyroid Gland;511
9.1.4.5;Thyroid Hormones and Oxidative Stress;512
9.1.4.6;Iodine Deficiency and Oxidative Damage;512
9.1.4.7;Iodine Deficiency and Thyroid Malignancy;515
9.1.4.8;Summary Points;517
9.1.4.9;Acknowledgments;518
9.1.4.10;References;518
9.1.5;Chapter 52. Iodine Deficiency in Relation to Iron Deficiency and Parasitosis: Effect of Iron Status and Parasites on Iodine Deficiency Disorders;522
9.1.5.1;Abstract;522
9.1.5.2;Abbreviations;522
9.1.5.3;Introduction;522
9.1.5.4;The Challenge;523
9.1.5.5;Iodine Deficiency;524
9.1.5.6;Feto-Maternal Repercussions of Iodine Deficiency during Pregnancy and the Immediate Postnatal Period;524
9.1.5.7;Fe Status and Thyroid Metabolism;525
9.1.5.8;Iodine Deficiency and Parasitosis;527
9.1.5.9;Fe Deficiency and Parasitosis;527
9.1.5.10;Iodine and Fe Fortification and Parasitosis;532
9.1.5.11;Summary Points;533
9.1.5.12;References;533
9.1.6;Chapter 53. Iodine Deficiency and Thyroid Cancers: Effect of Iodine Prophylaxis on Thyroid Cancer Morphology;536
9.1.6.1;Abstract;536
9.1.6.2;Abbreviations;536
9.1.6.3;Introduction;536
9.1.6.4;General Features of Thyroid Cancer;537
9.1.6.5;Dietary Iodine and Thyroid Cancer;538
9.1.6.6;Summary Points;541
9.1.6.7;References;541
9.1.7;Chapter 54. Iodine Deficiency in Vegetarian and Vegan Diets: Evidence-Based Review of the World's Literature on Iodine Content in Vegetarian Diets;544
9.1.7.1;Abstract;544
9.1.7.2;Abbreviations;544
9.1.7.3;Introduction;544
9.1.7.4;Nomenclature, Types and Prevalence of Vegetarians;545
9.1.7.5;Demographic and Lifestyle Characteristics of Vegetarians;547
9.1.7.6;Iodine Content of Omnivore and Vegetarian Diets;547
9.1.7.7;Iodine Nutrition in Vegetarians;548
9.1.7.8;Discussion;551
9.1.7.9;Conclusion;552
9.1.7.10;Summary Points;552
9.1.7.11;References;552
9.1.8;Chapter 55. Relationship between Iodine Intake and Thyroid Size;556
9.1.8.1;Abstract;556
9.1.8.2;Abbreviations;556
9.1.8.3;Introduction;556
9.1.8.4;Thyroid Size Before and After Introduction of Iodine Fortification;556
9.1.8.5;Relationship Between Iodine Intake and Mean Thyroid Volume Between Countries/Populations;557
9.1.8.6;Relationship Between Iodine Intake and Thyroid Volume Within a Population;558
9.1.8.7;Relationship Between Various Measures of Iodine Intake and Thyroid Volume;558
9.1.8.8;Conclusion;559
9.1.8.9;Summary Points;559
9.1.8.10;References;559
9.1.9;Chapter 56. Thyroid Peroxidase Deficiency and Total Iodide Organification Defect;562
9.1.9.1;Abstract;562
9.1.9.2;Abbreviations;562
9.1.9.3;Introduction;562
9.1.9.4;TPO: Structure and Function;563
9.1.9.5;TPO: Polymorphisms and Mutations;564
9.1.9.6;Congenital Hypothyroidism due to TPO Deficiency;566
9.1.9.7;Summary Points;568
9.1.9.8;References;568
9.1.10;Chapter 57. Iodine Deficiency, Antioxidant Response and Mutagenesis in the Thyroid Gland: Antioxidant Response and Mutagenesis;572
9.1.10.1;Abstract;572
9.1.10.2;Abbreviations;572
9.1.10.3;Introduction;572
9.1.10.4;Substrates of Thyroid Hormone Metabolism: Iodine and H[sub(2)]O[sub(2)];573
9.1.10.5;Antioxidant Response during Iodine Deficiency;574
9.1.10.6;Markers of Oxidative DNA Damage;575
9.1.10.7;Spontaneous Mutation in the Thyroid;577
9.1.10.8;DNA Damage in the Iodine-Deficient Thyroid;578
9.1.10.9;Consequences of a High Somatic Mutation Rate in the Thyroid;578
9.1.10.10;Conclusion;579
9.1.10.11;Summary Points;579
9.1.10.12;References;580
9.1.11;Chapter 58. Adaptation to Iodine Deficiency: Experimental Aspects: T4 and T3 in Plasma and Different Tissues;582
9.1.11.1;Abstract;582
9.1.11.2;Abbreviations;582
9.1.11.3;Introduction;582
9.1.11.4;Discussion;585
9.1.11.5;Conclusion;588
9.1.11.6;Possible Implications for Man;588
9.1.11.7;Summary Points;589
9.1.11.8;References;589
9.1.12;Chapter 59. Exercise and Iodine Deficiency;592
9.1.12.1;Abstract;592
9.1.12.2;Abbreviations;592
9.1.12.3;Introduction;592
9.1.12.4;Iodide Loss in Sweat;593
9.1.12.5;Effect of Iodine Supplementation;593
9.1.12.6;Magnitude of Iodine Loss;594
9.1.12.7;Conclusions;595
9.1.12.8;Summary Points;596
9.1.12.9;Acknowledgments;596
9.1.12.10;References;596
9.1.13;Chapter 60. Antibodies to Thyroid Peroxidase and Thyroglobulin in Iodine Deficiencies;598
9.1.13.1;Abstract;598
9.1.13.2;Abbreviations;598
9.1.13.3;Introduction;598
9.1.13.4;Intervention Studies on Iodine Intake;601
9.1.13.5;Intervention by Iodine Fortification of Salt in the Population;602
9.1.13.6;Comparative Epidemiological Studies on Thyroid Autoantibodies;603
9.1.13.7;Thyroid Autoantibodies in Iodine-Deficient Areas;605
9.1.13.8;Thyroid Autoantibodies in Iodine-Replete Areas;605
9.1.13.9;The Paradox of Iodine Intake and Thyroid Autoimmunity;606
9.1.13.10;Speculations on Possible Mechanisms behind Iodine Intake and Development of Antibodies;606
9.1.13.11;Summary Points;607
9.1.13.12;References;607
9.1.14;Chapter 61. Bromide Interference with Iodine Metabolism: Goitrogenic and Whole-Body Effects of Excessive Inorganic Bromide in the Rat;610
9.1.14.1;Abstract;610
9.1.14.2;Abbreviations;610
9.1.14.3;Introduction;610
9.1.14.4;Metabolism and Function of Bromide;611
9.1.14.5;Effects of Excessive Bromide on Iodine Metabolism in the Thyroid;612
9.1.14.6;Interference of Excessive Bromide with the Whole-Body Metabolism of Iodine;613
9.1.14.7;Dependence of the Excretion Rate of Bromide (Iodide) on Sodium Intake;616
9.1.14.8;Summary Points;617
9.1.14.9;Acknowledgments;618
9.1.14.10;References;618
9.2;Section (3.2) The Effects on the Brain and Neurological Aspect;620
9.2.1;Chapter 62. Iodine Deficiency and the Brain: An Overview;622
9.2.1.1;Abstract;622
9.2.1.2;Abbreviations;622
9.2.1.3;Introduction;622
9.2.1.4;Clinical Studies of Endemic Cretinism;622
9.2.1.5;Epidemiological Studies of Brain Damage due to Iodine Deficiency;623
9.2.1.6;Studies of Pathogenesis;623
9.2.1.7;Animal Models;625
9.2.1.8;Quantitative Estimates of Brain Damage in Iodine-Deficient Populations;626
9.2.1.9;Global Program for Elimination of Iodine Deficiency Disorders;627
9.2.1.10;Summary;627
9.2.1.11;References;628
9.2.2;Chapter 63. Iodine-Deficient Gestation and Neurodevelopment of 3-Year-Old Children;630
9.2.2.1;Abstract;630
9.2.2.2;Abbreviations;630
9.2.2.3;Introduction;630
9.2.2.4;Objectives;632
9.2.2.5;Subjects;632
9.2.2.6;Analytical Procedures;632
9.2.2.7;Statistical Analyses;632
9.2.2.8;Results;632
9.2.2.9;Discussion;635
9.2.2.10;Summary Points;636
9.2.2.11;References;637
9.2.3;Chapter 64. Experimental Models of Iodine Deficiency and Cretinism during Development: The Role of the Mother;638
9.2.3.1;Abstract;638
9.2.3.2;List of Abbreviations;638
9.2.3.3;Cretinism: Historical and Epidemiological Studies;638
9.2.3.4;The Maternal Transfer of T4 during Gestation: Experimental Studies;639
9.2.3.5;Iodine Deficiency during Development;641
9.2.3.6;The Human Brain Early in Gestation;641
9.2.3.7;Neurological Abnormalities in Iodine Deficiency;643
9.2.3.8;Summary Points;645
9.2.3.9;References;645
9.2.4;Chapter 65. The Effects of Hypothyroidism Due to Iodine Deficiency in Neonatal Brain: The Changes in Brain Metabolites Detected by Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy;648
9.2.4.1;Abstract;648
9.2.4.2;Abbreviations;648
9.2.4.3;Introduction;649
9.2.4.4;Iodine Deficiency and Hypothyroxinemia;649
9.2.4.5;Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy;651
9.2.4.6;Brain MRS Findings in Neonates with Hypothyroidism due to Intrauterine Iodine Deficiency: A Representative Study;653
9.2.4.7;Hypothyroidism and Major Cerebral Metabolites: Effects of Thyroxine Therapy on N-Acetyl Aspartate and Choline Levels;655
9.2.4.8;Summary;656
9.2.4.9;Summary Points;656
9.2.4.10;References;656
9.2.5;Chapter 66. The Deiodinase Type 2 (DIO2) Gene and Mental Retardation in Iodine Deficiency;658
9.2.5.1;Abstract;658
9.2.5.2;Introduction;658
9.2.5.3;Association Studies between the DIO2 Gene and Mental Retardation in Iodine-Deficient Areas;660
9.2.5.4;Results;661
9.2.5.5;Discussion;662
9.2.5.6;Summary Points;663
9.2.5.7;References;664
9.2.6;Chapter 67. DNA Damage in Brain and Thyroid Gland Cells due to High Fluoride and Low Iodine;666
9.2.6.1;Abstract;666
9.2.6.2;Abbreviations;666
9.2.6.3;Introduction;666
9.2.6.4;The Test Method for DNA Damage;667
9.2.6.5;Experimental Evidence for DNA Damage in Brain and Thyroid Gland Cells;667
9.2.6.6;What Can We Learn From These Studies?;669
9.2.6.7;References;671
9.2.7;Chapter 68. Attention Deficit and Hyperactivity Disorders due to Iodine Deficiency: A Novel Iodine Deficiency Disorder Affecting the Offspring of Hypothyroxinemic Mothers;674
9.2.7.1;Abstract;674
9.2.7.2;Abbreviations;674
9.2.7.3;Introduction;674
9.2.7.4;About ADHD;675
9.2.7.5;ADHD and Iodine Deficiency;677
9.2.7.6;Summary Points;684
9.2.7.7;References;684
9.2.8;Chapter 69. Brain Iodine and Other Halogens of Control and Alzheimer's Diseased Patients: Brain Iodine Deficiency in Alzheimer's Disease;686
9.2.8.1;Abstract;686
9.2.8.2;Abbreviations;686
9.2.8.3;Introduction;686
9.2.8.4;Sample Preparation;688
9.2.8.5;Applied Techniques;688
9.2.8.6;Iodine;690
9.2.8.7;Bromine;691
9.2.8.8;Chlorine;692
9.2.8.9;Correlation Between Elements;693
9.2.8.10;Summary Points;695
9.2.8.11;References;695
9.2.9;Chapter 70. A Novel Iodine Deficiency Disorder: Gestational Hypothyroxinemia – How Safe is it for Progeny?;698
9.2.9.1;Abstract;698
9.2.9.2;Abbreviations;698
9.2.9.3;Introduction;698
9.2.9.4;Iodine Deficiency-Related Gestational Hypothyroxinemia;699
9.2.9.5;Why Should We Care about Iodine-Deficiency-Related Maternal Hypothyroxinemia?;703
9.2.9.6;Current Opinions of Iodine-Deficiency-Related Hypothyroxinemia: Comment and Criticism;705
9.2.9.7;Summary Points;706
9.2.9.8;References;706
9.2.10;Chapter 71. Iodine, Selenium Deficiency and Kashin–Beck Disease;708
9.2.10.1;Abstract;708
9.2.10.2;Abbreviations;708
9.2.10.3;Introduction;708
9.2.10.4;Iodine and Selenium Interactions and the Endocrine System;709
9.2.10.5;Kashin–Beck Disease;715
9.2.10.6;Concluding Remarks;719
9.2.10.7;Summary Points;721
9.2.10.8;References;721
9.2.11;Chapter 72. Iodine, Thyroid Diseases and Neuromuscular Dysfunction;724
9.2.11.1;Abstract;724
9.2.11.2;Abbreviations;724
9.2.11.3;Introduction;724
9.2.11.4;Normal Iodine and Thyroid Physiology;725
9.2.11.5;Neuromuscular Dysfunction of Thyroid Dysfunction Pathophysiology;726
9.2.11.6;Hyperthyroidism and Neuromuscular Dysfunction;727
9.2.11.7;Hypothyroidism and Neuromuscular Dysfunction;731
9.2.11.8;Acknowledgment;733
9.2.11.9;Summary Points;733
9.2.11.10;References;733
9.2.12;Chapter 73. Reduced Iodine Intake and Iodine Prophylaxis in Pregnancy: Importance of Hypothyroxinemia in the First Trimester of Gestation;736
9.2.12.1;Abstract;736
9.2.12.2;Abbreviations;736
9.2.12.3;Introduction;736
9.2.12.4;Effect of Early Maternal Hypothyroxinemia on CNS Development;737
9.2.12.5;Pregnant Women with Iodine Deficiency in Iodine-Sufficient Areas: How Common is Hypothyroxinemia in Pregnant Women in Developed Countries?;738
9.2.12.6;Diagnosis of Iodine Deficiency and Hypothyroxinemia in Pregnant Women;739
9.2.12.7;Options to Correct Iodine Deficiency and Hypothyroxinemia in Pregnant Women;740
9.2.12.8;Undesirable Consequences of Iodine Supplementation;741
9.2.12.9;Acknowledgment;742
9.2.12.10;Summary Points;742
9.2.12.11;References;742
10;Section 4: Prevention and Treatment of Iodine Deficiency Disorders;744
10.1;Chapter 74. The Role of the ICCIDD in the Global Program for the Elimination of Brain Damage Due to Iodine Deficiency;746
10.1.1;Abstract;746
10.1.2;Abbreviations;746
10.1.3;Introduction: Founding of the ICCIDD;746
10.1.4;The ICCIDD Network;747
10.1.5;The Activities of the ICCIDD;748
10.1.6;Sustainability;749
10.1.7;Conclusion;750
10.1.8;Summary Points;751
10.1.9;References;751
10.2;Chapter 75. Iodine Fortification: Some Industrial Initiatives and Concerns;754
10.2.1;Abstract;754
10.2.2;Abbreviations;754
10.2.3;Introduction;754
10.2.4;Iodine Fortification in Processed Foods;755
10.2.5;Forms of Iodine for Fortification and Issues in Fortification;759
10.2.6;Summary Points;761
10.2.7;Acknowledgment;761
10.2.8;References;761
10.3;Chapter 76. Labeling Techniques with [sup(123)]I: Application to Clinical Settings;764
10.3.1;Abstract;764
10.3.2;Abbreviations;764
10.3.3;Introduction;764
10.3.4;Criteria for the Choice of 123-Iodine;765
10.3.5;Labeling Techniques;766
10.3.6;Labeling Stability and Quality Control;774
10.3.7;Clinical Applications;774
10.3.8;Summary;778
10.3.9;References;778
10.4;Chapter 77. Effect of Iodine Restriction on Thyroid Function in Patients with Hashimoto's Thyroiditis;780
10.4.1;Abstract;780
10.4.2;Abbreviations;780
10.4.3;Introduction;780
10.4.4;Summary Points;783
10.4.5;References;784
10.5;Chapter 78. Effect of Lifelong Iodine Supplementation;786
10.5.1;Abstract;786
10.5.2;Abbreviations;786
10.5.3;Introduction;786
10.5.4;Studies from Adults with Lifelong Iodine Supplementation;787
10.5.5;Discussion and Conclusions;791
10.5.6;Summary Points;791
10.5.7;References;792
10.6;Chapter 79. Evaluating the Efficiency of Iodization Programs: Impact of Iodine Prophylaxis on Different Aspects of Life and Society;794
10.6.1;Abstract;794
10.6.2;Abbreviations;794
10.6.3;Introduction;794
10.6.4;Iodization Programs;795
10.6.5;Effects of Excess Iodine Supplementation;799
10.6.6;Limitations of Iodization Programs;799
10.6.7;Tasmania and Finland;799
10.6.8;Summary Points;800
10.6.9;References;801
10.7;Chapter 80. Net benefits of Active Iodine Prophylaxis over Silent Prophylaxis: Policy Implications Based on a Natural Experiment;802
10.7.1;Abstract;802
10.7.2;Abbreviations;802
10.7.3;Introduction;802
10.7.4;A Natural Experiment;803
10.7.5;Contribution of AP versus SP;803
10.7.6;Policy implications;809
10.7.7;Summary Points;809
10.7.8;Acknowledgment;809
10.7.9;References;809
10.8;Chapter 81. Treatment Regimens in Toxic and Diffuse Goiters in Iodine Deficiency: Goiter and Hyperthyroidism in Iodine Deficiency;812
10.8.1;Abstract;812
10.8.2;Abbreviations;812
10.8.3;Introduction;812
10.8.4;Treatment of Toxic Adenoma and Toxic Multinodular Goiter;813
10.8.5;Treatment of Hypofunctioning Thyroid Nodules and Euthyroid Diffuse Goiters;817
10.8.6;Summary Points;821
10.8.7;References;822
10.9;Chapter 82. Are there Side Effects when Using Supraphysiologic Levels of Iodine in Treatment Regimens?;824
10.9.1;Abstract;824
10.9.2;Abbreviations;824
10.9.3;Introduction;824
10.9.4;Iodine Chemistry;825
10.9.5;Nonthyronine Pharmacologic Activity;825
10.9.6;Clinical Trials with I[sub(2)];827
10.9.7;Summary Points;832
10.9.8;References;832
10.10;Chapter 83. Iodization of Salt in Poland: Past and the Future;834
10.10.1;Abstract;834
10.10.2;Abbreviations;834
10.10.3;Introduction;834
10.10.4;History;835
10.10.5;Present;835
10.10.6;Effects of Iodine Prophylaxis in Poland;836
10.10.7;Summary Points;838
10.10.8;References;839
10.11;Chapter 84. Iodine Supplementation Fails to Target the Elderly: Perspectives from Austria;840
10.11.1;Abstract;840
10.11.2;Abbreviations;840
10.11.3;Introduction;840
10.11.4;Measurement of Urinary Iodine Excretion;841
10.11.5;Thyroid Ultrasonography;841
10.11.6;Results of Epidemiologic Studies in Austria;842
10.11.7;Discussion;844
10.11.8;Summary Points;845
10.11.9;References;845
10.12;Chapter 85. Healthcare Service Delivery in Achieving Sustained Elimination of Iodine Deficiency Disorders: A Case Study, China;848
10.12.1;Abstract;848
10.12.2;Abbreviations;848
10.12.3;Introduction;849
10.12.4;The Role of the Health Sector;849
10.12.5;The Role of the Government;852
10.12.6;The Key Contributors to Success and Lessons for Reflection;854
10.12.7;Summary Points;856
10.12.8;References;857
10.13;Chapter 86. Evaluation of Iodine Prophylaxis in Czech Republic: Changes in Ioduria, Thyroid Status and Autoimmunity;858
10.13.1;Abstract;858
10.13.2;Abbreviations;858
10.13.3;Current Status of Iodine Deficiency;858
10.13.4;Improved Program of Iodine Prophylaxis in the Czech Republic;859
10.13.5;System of Re-evaluation of Effects of the Improved Program;861
10.13.6;Influence of Thyroid Autoimmunity;861
10.13.7;Summary and Conclusions;865
10.13.8;Summary Points;866
10.13.9;References;867
10.14;Chapter 87. The Effects of Salt Iodization on Normal Thyroid Physiology and Graves' Disease in India;870
10.14.1;Abstract;870
10.14.2;Abbreviations;870
10.14.3;Introduction;870
10.14.4;Change in Thyroid Iodine Kinetics;871
10.14.5;Change in Radioactive Iodine Uptake by the Thyroid;872
10.14.6;Change in Serum Thyroid Hormone Levels;872
10.14.7;Effect on Graves' Disease;872
10.14.8;Iodine-Induced Thyrotoxicosis;873
10.14.9;Thyroid Cancer;873
10.14.10;Summary Points;873
10.14.11;References;874
11;Section 5: Damage and Disease due to Iodine Toxicity;876
11.1;Chapter 88. Developmental Effects of Toxic Doses of Iodine;878
11.1.1;Abstract;878
11.1.2;Abbreviations;878
11.1.3;Introduction;878
11.1.4;Developmental Toxic Effects of Excess Maternal Iodine Exposure;879
11.1.5;Alterations of Maternal–Fetal Thyroid Hormone Metabolism Induced by Iodine Excess;883
11.1.6;Modulation of Expression Pattern of Hox Genes by TH in Bone Differentiation, Growth and Development;884
11.1.7;Summary Points;885
11.1.8;References;886
11.2;Chapter 89. Thyroiditis and Salt Iodization: Effect of Dietary Iodine on the Prevalence of Histological Autoimmune Thyroiditis;888
11.2.1;Abstract;888
11.2.2;Abbreviations;888
11.2.3;Introduction;888
11.2.4;Autoimmune Thyroiditis: General Features;889
11.2.5;Iodine Prophylaxis and Thyroiditis;889
11.2.6;Thyroiditis and Thyroid Cancer;890
11.2.7;Summary Points;891
11.2.8;References;891
11.3;Chapter 90. Detrimental Effects of Increasing Iodine Supply: Iodine-Induced Hyperthyroidism, Following Iodine Prophylaxis;894
11.3.1;Abstract;894
11.3.2;Abbreviations;894
11.3.3;Introduction;894
11.3.4;The Thyroid Can Compensate for High Amounts of Iodine;894
11.3.5;Detrimental Effects of Increased Iodine Supply;895
11.3.6;Iodine-Induced Hyperthyroidism;895
11.3.7;The First Observations on IIH;895
11.3.8;More Data on IIH Related to Iodine Prophylaxis;895
11.3.9;IIH Related to Intensification of Iodine Prophylaxis;897
11.3.10;IIH Underlying Mechanisms;897
11.3.11;Conclusions;898
11.3.12;Summary Points;898
11.3.13;References;898
11.4;Chapter 91. Experimental Studies on the Effect of Excessive Iodine Supplementation on the Thyroid Tissue;900
11.4.1;Abstract;900
11.4.2;Abbreviations;900
11.4.3;Introduction;900
11.4.4;Impact of Chronic Excessive Iodine Supplementation on Wistar Rats at Normal Iodine Baseline;900
11.4.5;Effects of Chronic Excessive Iodine Supplementation on Thyroid from Wistar Rats at Deficient Iodine Baseline;904
11.4.6;Effects of Chronic Excessive Iodine Supplementation on the Thyroid from NOD.H-2[sup(h4)] Mice at Normal Iodine Baseline;905
11.4.7;Effects of Chronic Excessive Iodine Supplementation on the Thyroid from NOD.H-2[sup(h4)] Mice at Deficient Iodine Baseline;907
11.4.8;Summary Points;908
11.4.9;References;908
11.5;Chapter 92. Frequency, Pathogenesis, Prevention and Treatment of Iodine-Induced Hyperthyroidism;910
11.5.1;Abstract;910
11.5.2;Abbreviations;910
11.5.3;Introduction;910
11.5.4;Frequency of Iodine-Induced Hyperthyroidism;911
11.5.5;Pathogenesis of Iodine-Induced Hyperthyroidism;912
11.5.6;Prevention of Iodine-Induced Hyperthyroidism;916
11.5.7;Treatment of Iodine-Induced Hyperthyroidism;916
11.5.8;Summary Points;917
11.5.9;References;918
11.6;Chapter 93. Iodine-Induced Toxic Effects due to Seaweed Consumption;920
11.6.1;Abstract;920
11.6.2;Abbreviations;920
11.6.3;Introduction;920
11.6.4;Iodine Content in Edible Seaweeds;921
11.6.5;Iodine-Induced Thyroid Disorders;922
11.6.6;Goiter, Hypothyroidism and Hashimoto's Thyroiditis Following Seaweed Consumption;924
11.6.7;Thyrotoxicosis due to Ingestion of Seaweed or Seaweed-Containing Dietary Supplements;927
11.6.8;Summary Points;930
11.6.9;Acknowledgments;930
11.6.10;References;930
11.7;Chapter 94. The Toxicology of Iodate: A Literature Survey in View of Its Use in Iodized Salt;932
11.7.1;Abstract;932
11.7.2;Abbreviations;932
11.7.3;Introduction;932
11.7.4;Physical and Chemical Properties of Iodate;933
11.7.5;Iodate in Human Food;934
11.7.6;Human Exposure at Recommended Doses of Iodate;934
11.7.7;Metabolism and Kinetics of Iodate;934
11.7.8;Government Regulatory Acts and Manufacturers' Recommendations;935
11.7.9;Toxicity of Iodates;935
11.7.10;Discussion and Assessment of Hazard;938
11.7.11;Summary Points;940
11.7.12;Acknowledgment;940
11.7.13;References;940
11.8;Chapter 95. Iodine-Containing Compounds: Use in Patients with Documented Adverse Reactions;942
11.8.1;Abstract;942
11.8.2;Abbreviations;942
11.8.3;Introduction;942
11.8.4;Types of Iodine Reactions;942
11.8.5;Iodine-Containing Products;943
11.8.6;Summary Points;948
11.8.7;References;948
11.9;Chapter 96. Influence of Iodine-Containing Pharmaceuticals on Iodine Status and Thyroid Function: Iodine-Induced Hyperthyroidism and Hypothyroidism;950
11.9.1;Abstract;950
11.9.2;Abbreviations;950
11.9.3;Introduction;950
11.9.4;Effects of Excessive Iodine Intake on Thyroid Hormone and Thyroid Function;950
11.9.5;Iodine-Containing Pharmaceuticals that Induce Thyroid Dysfunction;951
11.9.6;Prevention of Thyroid Dysfunction due to Iodine-Containing Drugs;956
11.9.7;Summary Points;956
11.9.8;References;957
11.10;Chapter 97. Two Unusual Situations of Excess Iodine Ingestion: A Faulty Iodinator and the US Space Program;960
11.10.1;Abbreviations;960
11.10.2;American Peace Corps Volunteers in Niger, West Africa;961
11.10.3;American Astronauts in the US Space Program;961
11.10.4;Summary Points;962
11.10.5;References;962
12;Section 6: Radiodine in the Non-Iodine Deficient Subject;964
12.1;Chapter 98. The Use of [sup(131)]Iodine in the Treatment of Graves' Disease in Children;966
12.1.1;Abstract;966
12.1.2;Abbreviations;966
12.1.3;Introduction;966
12.1.4;Childhood Hyperthyroidism;966
12.1.5;[sup(131)]I Therapy;967
12.1.6;Surgical Options;973
12.1.7;The Use of Antithyroid Medications;973
12.1.8;Treating Children with Graves' Disease;974
12.1.9;Summary Points;975
12.1.10;Addendum;975
12.1.11;References;976
12.2;Chapter 99. A Low-Iodine Diet Prior to Radioiodine Administration in the Management of Differentiated Thyroid Cancer;980
12.2.1;Abstract;980
12.2.2;Abbreviations;980
12.2.3;Introduction;980
12.2.4;Preparation for Radioiodine Scans and Therapy, and the Rationale for a Low-Iodine Diet;981
12.2.5;Evidence for the Benefit of a Low-Iodine Diet;981
12.2.6;Low-Iodine Diet in Combination with rTSH and Thyroid Hormone Replacement Prior to Radioiodine Administration;983
12.2.7;Duration of the Low-Iodine Diet;983
12.2.8;The Impact on Patients of Following a Low-Iodine Diet;983
12.2.9;The Content of a Low-Iodine Diet;984
12.2.10;Conclusion;986
12.2.11;Summary Points;986
12.2.12;References;986
12.3;Chapter 100. Use of 131-Iodine and the Risk of Radiation Exposure: Potential Hazards to the Patient and Other People;988
12.3.1;Abstract;988
12.3.2;Abbreviations;988
12.3.3;Introduction;989
12.3.4;131-Iodine and Radiobiology;989
12.3.5;Medical Use of 131-Iodine;990
12.3.6;Modes of Radiation Exposure;991
12.3.7;Risks Associated with Non-Intended Radiation Exposure to the Patient;992
12.3.8;Risk of Radiation Exposure to Members of the Public, Caregivers and Relatives;994
12.3.9;Recommendations of Radiation Protection Authorities;997
12.3.10;Summary Points;999
12.3.11;References;999
12.4;Chapter 101. The Sodium Iodide Symporter (NIS): NIS-Mediated Radioiodide Therapy;1002
12.4.1;Abstract;1002
12.4.2;Abbreviations;1002
12.4.3;Introduction;1002
12.4.4;The Sodium Iodide Symporter as the Molecular Basis for Radioiodine Treatment of Thyroid Cancer;1004
12.4.5;The Sodium Iodide Symporter and Its Potential as a Therapeutic Gene;1004
12.4.6;Unselective NIS Gene Transfer;1005
12.4.7;Tumorselective NIS Gene Transfer;1006
12.4.8;Application of Alternative Radionuclides Following NIS Gene Transfer;1007
12.4.9;The Sodium Iodide Symporter in the Mammary Gland and Its Possible Clinical Relevance;1008
12.4.10;Summary Points;1010
12.4.11;References;1010
12.5;Chapter 102. Using Retinoids to Increase Radioiodine Uptake in Thyroid Cancer: Role as Potential Redifferentiation Agents;1014
12.5.1;Abstract;1014
12.5.2;Abbreviations;1014
12.5.3;Introduction;1014
12.5.4;Iodine Uptake by Thyroid Cells;1015
12.5.5;Retinoids;1016
12.5.6;Retinoids: Clinical Studies;1017
12.5.7;Summary;1020
12.5.8;References;1020
12.6;Chapter 103. The Use of Lithium as an Adjuvant in Radioactive Iodine Treatment of Thyroid Cancer;1024
12.6.1;Abstract;1024
12.6.2;Abbreviations;1024
12.6.3;Introduction/Background;1024
12.6.4;Approaches of Radioactive Iodine Treatment;1024
12.6.5;Methods of Optimization of Uptake and Retention of [sup(131)]I in Thyroid Tissue;1025
12.6.6;Optimization of Uptake;1025
12.6.7;Optimization of Retention: Role of Lithium;1025
12.6.8;Lithium Action in Thyroid Cancer;1026
12.6.9;Summary Points;1027
12.6.10;Acknowledgements;1028
12.6.11;References;1028
12.7;Chapter 104. [sup(131)]Iodine in Thyroid Cancer: Use of [sup(131)]I in the Diagnosis and Therapy of Differentiated Thyroid Carcinoma;1030
12.7.1;Abstract;1030
12.7.2;Abbreviations;1030
12.7.3;Introduction;1030
12.7.4;Patient-Specific Prognostic Factors;1031
12.7.5;Tumor-Specific Prognostic Factors;1032
12.7.6;Postsurgical [sup(131)]Iodine ([sup(131)]I) Remnant Ablation;1034
12.7.7;[sup(131)]I Therapy of Differentiated Thyroid Carcinoma;1035
12.7.8;Acute and Long-Term Effects of [sup(131)]I Therapy;1036
12.7.9;Early Effects of [sup(131)]I Treatment;1036
12.7.10;Late Effects of [sup(131)]I Treatment;1037
12.7.11;[sup(131)]I Imaging and Follow-Up;1038
12.7.12;[sup(131)]I Therapy of DTC: Outcomes;1039
12.7.13;Further Management;1042
12.7.14;Frontiers in Therapy of DTC;1043
12.7.15;Summary and Conclusions;1043
12.7.16;Summary Points;1044
12.7.17;References;1044
13;Section 7: Other Causes of Hypothyroidism;1048
13.1;Chapter 105. The Extent of Hypothyroidism in the United States;1050
13.1.1;Abstract;1050
13.1.2;Abbreviations;1050
13.1.3;Introduction;1050
13.1.4;Hypothyroidism in Adults;1050
13.1.5;Congenital Hypothyroidism and Adolescents;1052
13.1.6;Postpartum Hypothyroidism;1053
13.1.7;Hypothyroidism in Older Adults;1053
13.1.8;Summary Points;1054
13.1.9;References;1054
13.2;Chapter 106. Hypothyroidism in the Middle Aged and Elderly: Clinical Aspects;1056
13.2.1;Abstract;1056
13.2.2;Abbreviations;1056
13.2.3;Introduction;1056
13.2.4;Ageing and Thyroid Function;1056
13.2.5;Epidemiology;1057
13.2.6;Etiology;1057
13.2.7;Clinical Manifestations;1058
13.2.8;Biochemical Diagnosis;1059
13.2.9;Etiologial Diagnosis;1060
13.2.10;Summary Points;1060
13.2.11;References;1061
13.3;Chapter 107. Hypothyroidism in the Middle Aged and Elderly: Therapeutical Aspects – Iodine Defect or Excess May Cause Hypothyroidism;1064
13.3.1;Abstract;1064
13.3.2;Abbreviations;1064
13.3.3;Replacement Treatment of Hypothyroidism;1064
13.3.4;Adverse Effects of Levothyroxine;1065
13.3.5;Control of Patients with Hypothyroidism;1065
13.3.6;Treatment of Subclinical Hypothyroidism;1065
13.3.7;Severe Hypothyroidism and Myxedema Coma;1067
13.3.8;Hypothyroidism and Surgery;1067
13.3.9;Screening for Hypothyroidism;1068
13.3.10;Summary Points;1069
13.3.11;References;1069
13.4;Chapter 108. Brain Damage in Clinical Hypothyroidism in Childhood;1070
13.4.1;Abstract;1070
13.4.2;Abbreviations;1070
13.4.3;Introduction;1070
13.4.4;Clinical Neurological Findings of Hypothyroidism in Children;1071
13.4.5;Neuropathological Findings in Hypothyroidism;1074
13.4.6;Neuroimaging in Hypothyroidism;1074
13.4.7;Molecular Biology;1076
13.4.8;Summary Points;1076
13.4.9;References;1077
13.5;Chapter 109. Hypertension and Hypothyroidism: A Thyroid Dysfunction Frequently Associated with Abnormal Dietary Iodine Intake;1080
13.5.1;Abstract;1080
13.5.2;Abbreviations;1080
13.5.3;Introduction;1081
13.5.4;Hypertension and Hypothyroidism as Individual and Combined Disorders;1081
13.5.5;Thyroid Hormone Action within the Heart and Vascular System: from Cellular to Hemodynamic Effects;1085
13.5.6;Mechanisms of Disease Underlying the Hypertensive and Hypothyroid States;1088
13.5.7;Conclusions and Perspectives;1092
13.5.8;Summary Points;1092
13.5.9;References;1093
13.6;Chapter 110. Heart Failure, Iodine Intake and Thyroid Hormones;1096
13.6.1;Abstract;1096
13.6.2;Abbreviations;1096
13.6.3;Introduction;1097
13.6.4;Heart Failure: The Evolving Interpretative Model of Its Progression;1097
13.6.5;Thyroid Hormone Action on Cardiomyocytes and Vascular Cells;1098
13.6.6;Thyroid Hormones in Heart Failure: Experimental Evidence;1099
13.6.7;Thyroid and Heart Failure: Clinical Evidence;1100
13.6.8;Treatment of Heart Failure with Synthetic Thyroid Hormone;1104
13.6.9;Perspectives and Conclusions;1106
13.6.10;Summary Points;1107
13.6.11;References;1107
13.7;Chapter 111. Skeletal Muscle Changes in Hypothyroidism;1110
13.7.1;Abstract;1110
13.7.2;Abbreviations;1110
13.7.3;Introduction;1111
13.7.4;Classification of Motor Units;1111
13.7.5;Motoneurons;1111
13.7.6;Neuromuscular Junction;1112
13.7.7;Skeletal Muscles;1114
13.7.8;Mechanisms for Thyroid Hormone Effects on Motor Units;1121
13.7.9;Summary Points;1121
13.7.10;Acknowledgments;1122
13.7.11;References;1122
13.8;Chapter 112. Ocular Aspects of Hypothyroidism: Neuro-Ophthalmological Dysfunction in Relation to Thyroid Disease and Iodine;1126
13.8.1;Abstract;1126
13.8.2;Abbreviations;1126
13.8.3;Introduction;1126
13.8.4;Search Strategy;1126
13.8.5;Iodine and Thyroid Disorders;1126
13.8.6;Investigations in Thyroid Eye Disorders;1127
13.8.7;Eyelid Disorders;1128
13.8.8;Visual Function;1130
13.8.9;Ophthalmoplegia;1132
13.8.10;Other Aspects;1132
13.8.11;Summary Points;1133
13.8.12;References;1133
13.9;Chapter 113. Pregnancy and Hypothyroidism: Autoimmune Thyroiditis and Iodine Deficiency Complicating Mother and Fetus;1136
13.9.1;Abstract;1136
13.9.2;Abbreviations;1136
13.9.3;Introduction;1136
13.9.4;Hypothyroidism and Pregnancy;1137
13.9.5;Conclusions;1143
13.9.6;Summary Points;1143
13.9.7;References;1143
13.10;Chapter 114. How the Public and Private Sectors Have Successfully Come Together in Efforts to Universally Iodize Salt;1146
13.10.1;Abstract;1146
13.10.2;Abbreviations;1146
13.10.3;Introduction;1146
13.10.4;Universal Salt Iodization;1146
13.10.5;Partnerships;1147
13.10.6;Why Partnerships Are Essential in Universal Salt Iodization;1147
13.10.7;Key Factors for Successful Public–Private Partnerships in USI;1148
13.10.8;Moving Forward;1149
13.10.9;Conclusion;1149
13.10.10;Summary Points;1149
13.10.11;References;1150
13.11;Chapter 115. Iodine Status Reflected by Urinary Concentrations: Comparison with the USA and Other Countries;1152
13.11.1;Abstract;1152
13.11.2;Abbreviations;1152
13.11.3;Introduction;1152
13.11.4;Urinary Iodine Concentrations in the United States and Other Countries;1153
13.11.5;Summary;1158
13.11.6;Summary Points;1159
13.11.7;Acknowledgments;1159
13.11.8;References;1159
13.12;Chapter 116. Iodine Intake in the European Elderly;1162
13.12.1;Abstract;1162
13.12.2;Abbreviations;1162
13.12.3;Introduction;1162
13.12.4;Methods of Assessment;1162
13.12.5;Surveys of Iodine Intake in the Elderly;1163
13.12.6;Dietary Supplements;1166
13.12.7;Impressions from Dietary Surveys;1166
13.12.8;Conclusion;1168
13.12.9;Summary Points;1168
13.12.10;References;1168
13.13;Chapter 117. Iodine Deficiency in Pregnant Women in England;1170
13.13.1;Abstract;1170
13.13.2;Abbreviations;1170
13.13.3;Background;1170
13.13.4;Urinary Iodine Excretion (UIE) in northeast England;1172
13.13.5;Summary Points;1174
13.13.6;References;1174
13.14;Chapter 118. Epidemiology of Thyroid Disorders in Germany;1176
13.14.1;Abstract;1176
13.14.2;Abbreviations;1176
13.14.3;History of Iodine Deficiency in Germany;1176
13.14.4;Current Findings;1177
13.14.5;Problems and Challenges of Iodine Fortification in Germany;1178
13.14.6;Perspectives;1179
13.14.7;Conclusions;1179
13.14.8;Summary Points;1179
13.14.9;Acknowledgment;1179
13.14.10;References;1179
13.15;Chapter 119. Surveillance of Thyroid Disorders and Iodine Intake in the Danish Population before and after Mandatory Iodide Fortification of Salt: The DanThyr Program;1182
13.15.1;Abstract;1182
13.15.2;Abbreviations;1182
13.15.3;Report on Iodine Deficiency in Denmark;1184
13.15.4;Fortification of Salt with Iodine in Denmark;1184
13.15.5;Monitoring of Iodine Intake and Thyroid Disorders: The DanThyr Study;1185
13.15.6;The DanThyr Cohort Study;1186
13.15.7;Status before Salt Iodization;1186
13.15.8;Status after Salt Iodization;1187
13.15.9;The DanThyr Registry of Overt Hypo- and Hyperthyroidism;1188
13.15.10;Incidence of Overt Hyperthyroidism after Iodine Fortification of Salt;1188
13.15.11;Incidence of Overt Hypothyroidism after Iodine Fortification of Salt;1189
13.15.12;Central Registry for Surgical and Medical Treatment;1189
13.15.13;Conclusion;1190
13.15.14;Summary Points;1190
13.15.15;References;1190
13.16;Chapter 120. Iodine Nutrition in Bulgaria: Results from the National Strategy for Elimination of Iodine Deficiency Disorders in Bulgaria – Epidemiologic Studies on Risk Population Groups;1192
13.16.1;Abstract;1192
13.16.2;Abbreviations;1192
13.16.3;Introduction;1192
13.16.4;Dynamics of IDD in Bulgaria Assessed on the Basis of Urinary Iodine Concentration and Goiter Prevalence;1193
13.16.5;Iodine Nutrition in Schoolchildren Living in Urban and Rural Areas in South Bulgaria;1195
13.16.6;Environmental Factors Stimulating the Manifestation of IDD;1197
13.16.7;Summary Points;1199
13.16.8;References;1200
13.17;Chapter 121. Iodine Status in Individuals: An Italian Perspective;1202
13.17.1;Abstract;1202
13.17.2;Abbreviations;1202
13.17.3;Introduction;1202
13.17.4;Description of the Region;1203
13.17.5;Spectrum of Thyroid Disease in the Calabrian Adult Population;1203
13.17.6;Endemic Goiter and Iodine Supply in Calabria at the End of the Twentieth Century;1203
13.17.7;Distribution of Goiter Prevalence in Different Areas of the Region;1204
13.17.8;Distribution According to Sex, Age and Grade of Goiter;1204
13.17.9;Urinary Iodine Excretion in Calabria;1204
13.17.10;Use of Screening for Congenital Hypothyroidism Results for Monitoring Iodine Deficiency;1205
13.17.11;Relationship between Neonatal TSH and Endemic Goiter;1206
13.17.12;Endemic Goiter and Iodine Supply in Calabria at the Beginning of the Third Millennium;1207
13.17.13;Summary Points;1207
13.17.14;References;1207
13.18;Chapter 122. Dietary Iodine Intake in the Ukraine;1208
13.18.1;Abstract;1208
13.18.2;Abbreviations;1208
13.18.3;Introduction;1208
13.18.4;Summary Point;1213
13.18.5;Acknowledgment;1213
13.18.6;References;1213
13.19;Chapter 123. Iodine Status in Individuals: An Argentine Perspective;1214
13.19.1;Abstract;1214
13.19.2;Introduction;1214
13.19.3;Argentine Regions;1215
13.19.4;Summary Points;1223
13.19.5;References;1224
13.20;Chapter 124. Iodization of Salt: The Control of Iodine Deficiency Disorders in Brazil;1226
13.20.1;Abstract;1226
13.20.2;Abbreviations;1226
13.20.3;Introduction;1226
13.20.4;Iodine Deficiency;1227
13.20.5;Iodine Supplementation: Salt Iodization;1230
13.20.6;Overview and Current Actions;1231
13.20.7;Conclusions;1233
13.20.8;Summary Points;1233
13.20.9;References;1234
13.21;Chapter 125. Effects of an Increased Iodine Intake on Thyroid Diseases: Epidemiological Study from China;1236
13.21.1;Abstract;1236
13.21.2;Abbreviations;1236
13.21.3;Introduction;1236
13.21.4;More than Adequate and Excessive Iodine Intake would Increase the Incidence of Hypothyroidism;1237
13.21.5;More than Adequate and Excessive Iodine Intake would Increase the Incidence of Autoimmune Thyroiditis;1239
13.21.6;More than Adequate and Excessive Iodine Intake would Accelerate the Development of Hypothyroidism in an Autoimmune Thyroiditis Population;1239
13.21.7;Iodine Excess Promoted the Development of Overt Hyperthyroidism in GD Family Members;1240
13.21.8;Iodine Excess and Thyroid Nodules;1241
13.21.9;More than 600µg/l Median Urinary Iodine Excretion Might be Connected to Elevated Incidence of Papillary Thyroid Carcinoma;1241
13.21.10;Serum Thyrotropin Levels Increased as Levels of Iodine Intake Rose;1241
13.21.11;The Upper and Lower Limits of Serum Thyrotropin within the Safety Range;1241
13.21.12;Summary Points;1243
13.21.13;References;1243
13.22;Chapter 126. Iodine Deficiency Disorders in Thailand;1244
13.22.1;Abstract;1244
13.22.2;Abbreviations;1244
13.22.3;History;1244
13.22.4;Implementing Measures;1245
13.22.5;Water Iodization;1246
13.22.6;Other Iodine Fortified Food;1246
13.22.7;Advocacy and Communication (IEC Activity);1246
13.22.8;Policy and Commitment;1247
13.22.9;Current Status of IDD;1247
13.22.10;Problems and Constraints;1248
13.22.11;The Way Ahead;1248
13.22.12;Current Activities;1248
13.22.13;Strategies in the Master Plan;1248
13.22.14;Summary Points;1249
13.22.15;References;1249
13.23;Chapter 127. The Current State of Iodine Deficiency Disorders (IDD) in Australia and the Pacific States;1250
13.23.1;Abstract;1250
13.23.2;Abbreviations;1250
13.23.3;Introduction;1250
13.23.4;Australia and New Zealand;1251
13.23.5;The Australian National Iodine Nutrition Study;1252
13.23.6;Iodine Deficiency in New Zealand;1253
13.23.7;Papua New Guinea;1253
13.23.8;Philippines;1254
13.23.9;Vanuatu;1254
13.23.10;Other Pacific Islands;1254
13.23.11;Summary Points;1254
13.23.12;References;1255
13.24;Chapter 128. History of Iodine Deficiency in Schoolchildren in Tasmania, Australia;1256
13.24.1;Abstract;1256
13.24.2;Abbreviations;1257
13.24.3;Introduction;1257
13.24.4;Population Surveys to Assess Iodine Status in Tasmania (1998–2007);1259
13.24.5;Evaluation of Survey Findings;1261
13.24.6;Implications;1266
13.24.7;Summary Points;1271
13.24.8;Acknowledgements;1271
13.24.9;References;1271
13.25;Chapter 129. Iodine Status and Deficiency Disorders in New Zealand;1274
13.25.1;Abstract;1274
13.25.2;Abbreviations;1274
13.25.3;Introduction;1274
13.25.4;Iodine Intake in New Zealand;1274
13.25.5;Iodine Status of the New Zealand Population;1276
13.25.6;The Etiology of Iodine Deficiency in New Zealand;1279
13.25.7;Possible Solutions;1279
13.25.8;Summary Points;1280
13.25.9;References;1280
13.26;Chapter 130. Iodine Nutrition in Pregnancy: Meeting Iodine Requirements in the Diets of Pregnant Women;1282
13.26.1;Abstract;1282
13.26.2;Abbreviatons;1282
13.26.3;Dietary Iodine Requirements in Pregnancy;1282
13.26.4;Assessing Iodine Intakes in Pregnant Women;1283
13.26.5;Meeting Dietary Iodine Requirements in Pregnancy;1283
13.26.6;Improving Iodine Intakes in Pregnant Women with Supplementation;1284
13.26.7;Good Dietary Sources of Iodine for Pregnant Women;1284
13.26.8;Salt Use in Pregnancy;1285
13.26.9;Dietary Recommendations for Pregnant Women;1285
13.26.10;Conclusion;1286
13.26.11;Summary Points;1286
13.26.12;References;1286
13.27;Chapter 131. Iodine Deficiency Disorders in Mali;1288
13.27.1;Abstract;1288
13.27.2;Abbreviations;1288
13.27.3;Introduction;1288
13.27.4;Prevalence of IDD in Mali;1288
13.27.5;Etiology;1289
13.27.6;Social–Anthropological Aspects of IDD;1291
13.27.7;Prevention and Treatment of IDD in Mali;1291
13.27.8;Summary points;1292
13.27.9;References;1292
13.28;Chapter 132. Nutritional, Endocrine and Pathological Aspects of Iodine Deficiency Disorders in India;1294
13.28.1;Abstract;1294
13.28.2;Abbreviations;1294
13.28.3;Introduction;1294
13.28.4;IDD: A Public Health Problem in India;1295
13.28.5;National Iodine Deficiency Disorders Control Program;1295
13.28.6;Progress on Iodized Salt Production in India;1295
13.28.7;Household Coverage of Iodized Salt in India;1295
13.28.8;Endocrine Aspects of Iodine Deficiency and its Control;1296
13.28.9;Discussions;1299
13.28.10;Lessons Learnt from the NIDDCP;1300
13.28.11;Conclusion;1300
13.28.12;Summary Points;1301
13.28.13;References;1302
14;Index;1304
14.1;A;1304
14.2;B;1305
14.3;C;1306
14.4;D;1308
14.5;E;1310
14.6;F;1311
14.7;G;1312
14.8;H;1313
14.9;I;1314
14.10;J;1319
14.11;K;1319
14.12;L;1319
14.13;M;1320
14.14;N;1322
14.15;O;1323
14.16;P;1323
14.17;Q;1326
14.18;R;1326
14.19;S;1327
14.20;T;1330
14.21;U;1333
14.22;V;1334
14.23;W;1334
14.24;X;1335
14.25;Z;1335