Carroll Natural Gas Hydrates

A Guide for Engineers
2. Auflage 2009
ISBN: 978-0-08-057002-0
Verlag: Elsevier Science & Techn.
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: 6 - ePub Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 295 Seiten

The petroleum industry spends millions of dollars every year to combat the formation of hydrates-the solid, crystalline compounds that form from water and small molecules-that cause problems by plugging transmission lines and damaging equipment. They are a problem in the production, transmission and processing of natural gas, and it is even possible for them to form in the reservoir itself if the conditions are favorable.
Natural Gas Hydrates is written for the field engineer working in the natural gas industry. This book explains how, when and where hydrates form, while providing the knowledge necessary to apply remedies in practical applications. New to the second edition, the use of new inhibitors: Kinetic Inhibitors and Anticoagulants and the topic of kinetics of hydrates. How fast do they form? How fast do they melt? New chapters on Hydrates in Nature, hydrates on the seafloor and a new section has also been added regarding the misconceptions about water dew points. Chapters on Hydrate Types and Formers, Computer Methods, Inhibiting Hydrate Formation with Chemicals, Dehydration of Natural Gas and Phase Diagrams Hydrate Dehydration of Natural Gas and Phase Diagrams have been expanded and updated along with the companion website.
* Understand what gas hydrates are, how they form and what can be done to combat their formation
* Avoid the same problems BP experienced with clogged pipelines
* Presents the four most common approaches to evaluate hydrates: heat, depressurization, inhibitor chemicals, and dehydration.


John Carroll is currently Director, Geostorage Processing Engineering for Gas Liquids Engineering, Ltd. in Calgary. With more than 20 years of experience, he supports other engineers with software problems and provides information involving fluid properties, hydrates and phase equilibria. Prior to that, he has worked for Honeywell, University of Alberta as a seasonal lecturer, and Amoco Canada as a Petroleum Engineer. John has published a couple of books, sits on three editorial advisory boards, and he has authored/co-authored more than 60 papers. He has trained many engineers on natural gas throughout the world, and is a member of several associations including SPE, AIChE, and GPAC. John earned a Bachelor of Science (with Distinction) and a Doctorate of Philosophy, both in Chemical Engineering from the University of Alberta. He is a registered professional engineer in the province of Alberta and New Brunswick, Canada.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Carroll, John

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Front cover;1
2;Natural gas hydrates: A guide for engineers;4
3;Copyright page;5
4;Contents;8
5;Preface to second edition;14
6;Preface to first edition;16
7;Acknowledgements;18
8;Chapter one: Introduction;20
8.1;1.1 Natural gas;21
8.1.1;1.1.1 Sales gas;21
8.1.2;1.1.2 Hydrates;22
8.2;1.2 The water molecule;22
8.2.1;1.2.1 The normal boiling point of water;22
8.2.2;1.2.2 Enthalpy of vaporization;24
8.2.3;1.2.3 Expansion upon freezing;25
8.3;1.3 Hydrates;28
8.4;1.4 Water and natural gas;30
8.4.1;1.4.1 Free-water;30
8.5;1.5 Heavy water;31
8.6;1.6 Additional reading;32
8.7;1.7 Units;32
8.8;Bibliography;33
8.9;References;33
8.10;Appendix 1A. A Periodic Table of the Elements;34
9;Chapter two: Hydrate types and formers;36
9.1;2.1. Type I hydrates;36
9.1.1;2.1.1 Type I formers;37
9.2;2.2. Type II hydrates;38
9.2.1;2.2.1 Type II formers;39
9.3;2.3. Type H hydrates;39
9.3.1;2.3.1 Type H formers;39
9.4;2.4. The size of the guest molecule;39
9.5;2.5. n-Butane;41
9.6;2.6. Other hydrocarbons;41
9.7;2.7. Cyclopropane;41
9.8;2.8. 2-Butene;42
9.9;2.9. Hydrogen and helium;42
9.9.1;2.9.1 Update;42
9.10;2.10. Chemical properties of potential guests;43
9.11;2.11. Liquid hydrate formers;43
9.12;2.12. Hydrate forming conditions;43
9.12.1;2.12.1 Pressure-Temperature;43
9.12.2;2.12.2 Composition;44
9.12.3;2.12.3 Caution;46
9.12.4;2.12.4 Nitrogen;47
9.12.5;2.12.5 Ethylene;47
9.12.6;2.12.6 Propylene;48
9.13;2.13. V+L[sub(A)]+H Correlations;49
9.13.1;2.13.1 Ethylene;50
9.14;2.14. L[sub(A)]+L[sub(H)]+H Correlations;54
9.15;2.15. Quadruple points;55
9.15.1;2.15.1 Cyclopropane;56
9.16;2.16. Other hydrate formers;56
9.16.1;2.16.1 Freons®;57
9.16.2;2.16.2 Halogens;57
9.16.3;2.16.3 Noble gases;57
9.16.4;2.16.4 Air;57
9.16.5;2.16.5 Others;57
9.17;2.17. Hydrate formation at 0°C;58
9.18;2.18. Mixtures;58
9.18.1;2.18.1 Mixtures of the same type;58
9.18.2;2.18.2 Type I plus Type II;59
9.18.3;2.18.3 Azeotropy;60
9.18.4;2.18.4 Mixtures with non-formers;61
9.19;Appendix 2A. Water content of the fluid in equilibrium with hydrate for pure components;63
9.20;References;68
10;Chapter three: Hand calculation methods;70
10.1;3.1 The gas gravity method;70
10.1.1;3.1.1 Verifying the approach;73
10.2;3.2 The K-Factor method;76
10.2.1;3.2.1 Calculation algorithms;77
10.2.2;3.2.2 Liquid hydrocarbons;79
10.2.3;3.2.3 Computerization;80
10.2.4;3.2.4 Comments on the accuracy of the K-factor method;81
10.2.5;3.2.5 Mann et al.;83
10.3;3.3 Baillie-Wichert method;83
10.4;3.4 Other correlations;86
10.4.1;3.4.1 Makogon;90
10.4.2;3.4.2 Kobayashi et al.;90
10.4.3;3.4.3 Motiee;91
10.4.4;3.4.4 Østergaard et al;91
10.4.5;3.4.5 Towler and Mokhatab;91
10.5;3.5 Comments on all the methods;92
10.5.1;3.5.1 Water;92
10.5.2;3.5.2 Non-formers;93
10.5.3;3.5.3 Isobutane vs. n-butane;93
10.5.4;3.5.4 Quick comparison;94
10.5.5;3.5.5 Sour natural gas;96
10.6;Appendix 3A. Katz K-Factor charts;102
10.7;References;112
11;Chapter four: Computer methods;114
11.1;4.1 Phase equilibrium;114
11.2;4.2 van der Waals and Platteeuw;115
11.3;4.3 Parrish and Prausnitz;116
11.4;4.4 Ng and Robinson;117
11.5;4.5 Calculations;117
11.5.1;4.5.1 Compositions;118
11.6;4.6 Commercial software packages;119
11.7;4.7 The accuracy of these programs;119
11.7.1;4.7.1 Pure components;120
11.7.2;4.7.2 Mixtures;123
11.7.3;4.7.3 Sour gas;127
11.8;4.8 Dehydration;128
11.9;4.9 Margin of error;129
11.10;References;131
12;Chapter five: Inhibiting hydrate formation with chemicals;132
12.1;5.1 Freezing point depression;133
12.2;5.2 The Hammerschmidt equation;136
12.3;5.3 The Nielsen-Bucklin equation;138
12.4;5.4 A new method;138
12.4.1;5.4.1 A chart;139
12.4.2;5.4.2 Accuracy of the new method;141
12.5;5.5 Brine solutions;143
12.5.1;5.5.1 McCain method;145
12.6;5.6 Østergaard et al.;145
12.7;5.7 Comment on the simple methods;149
12.8;5.8 Advanced calculation methods;149
12.9;5.9 A word of caution;150
12.10;5.10 Ammonia;151
12.11;5.11 Acetone;151
12.12;5.12 Inhibitor vaporization;152
12.12.1;5.12.1 A more theoretical approach;154
12.12.2;5.12.2 Inhibitor losses to the hydrocarbon liquid;156
12.13;5.13 A comment on injection rates;158
12.14;5.14 Safety considerations;158
12.15;5.15 Price for inhibitor chemicals;158
12.16;5.16 Low dosage hydrate inhibitors;159
12.16.1;5.16.1 Kinetic inhibitors;160
12.16.2;5.16.2 Anticoagulants;161
12.17;Bibliography;167
12.18;References;167
13;Chapter six: Dehydration of natural gas;170
13.1;6.1 Water content specification;170
13.2;6.2 Glycol dehydration;171
13.2.1;6.2.1 Liquid desiccants;171
13.2.2;6.2.2 Process description;172
13.2.3;6.2.3 Short Cut Design Method;175
13.2.4;6.2.4 Approximate capital cost;178
13.3;6.3 Mole sieves;179
13.3.1;6.3.1 Process description;179
13.3.2;6.3.2 Simplified modeling;179
13.4;6.4 Refrigeration;183
13.4.1;6.4.1 Process description;184
13.4.2;6.4.2 Glycol injection;185
13.5;References;188
14;Chapter seven: Combating hydrates using heat and pressure;190
14.1;7.1 Plugs;190
14.2;7.2 The use of heat;191
14.2.1;7.2.1 Heat loss from a buried pipeline;191
14.2.2;7.2.2 Line heater design;195
14.2.3;7.2.3 Two-phase heater transfer;198
14.3;7.3 De-pressurization;198
14.4;7.4 Melting a plug with heat;200
14.5;7.5 Buildings;202
14.6;7.6 Capital costs;202
14.7;Appendix 7A. Output from pipe heat loss program for the examples in the text;206
14.8;References;219
15;Chapter eight: Physical properties of hydrates;220
15.1;8.1 Molar mass;220
15.2;8.2 Density;221
15.3;8.3 Enthalpy of fusion;222
15.4;8.4 Heat capacity;224
15.5;8.5 Thermal conductivity;224
15.6;8.6 Mechanical properties;224
15.7;8.7 Volume of gas in hydrate;224
15.8;8.8 Ice versus hydrate;225
15.9;References;229
16;Chapter nine: Phase diagrams;230
16.1;9.1 Phase rule;230
16.2;9.2 Comments about phases;230
16.3;9.3 Single component systems;231
16.3.1;9.3.1 Water;233
16.4;9.4 Binary systems;233
16.4.1;9.4.1 Constructing T-x and P-x diagrams;236
16.4.2;9.4.2 Methane+water;236
16.4.3;9.4.3 Free-water;239
16.4.4;9.4.4 Carbon dioxide+water;239
16.4.5;9.4.5 Hydrogen sulfide+water;241
16.4.6;9.4.6 Propane+water;241
16.5;9.5 Phase behavior below 0°C;241
16.5.1;9.5.1 Methane+Water;241
16.6;9.6 Multicomponent systems;242
16.6.1;9.6.1 An acid gas mixture;243
16.6.2;9.6.2 A typical natural gas;244
16.7;References;247
17;Chapter ten: Water content of natural gas;248
17.1;10.1 Equilibrium with liquid water;248
17.1.1;10.1.1 Ideal model;249
17.1.2;10.1.2 McKetta-Wehe chart;250
17.1.3;10.1.3 Sharma-Campbell method;250
17.1.4;10.1.4 Bukacek;253
17.1.5;10.1.5 Ning et al.;254
17.1.6;10.1.6 Maddox correction;256
17.1.7;10.1.7 Robinson et al. charts;259
17.1.8;10.1.8 Wichert correction;260
17.1.9;10.1.9 AQUAlibrium;261
17.2;10.2 Equilibrium with solids;261
17.2.1;10.2.1 Ice;261
17.2.2;10.2.2 Hydrate;263
17.2.3;10.2.3 Methane;263
17.2.4;10.2.4 Gas gravity;264
17.2.5;10.2.5 Ethane;267
17.2.6;10.2.6 Propane;268
17.3;References;273
18;Chapter eleven: Additional topics;274
18.1;11.1 Joule-Thomson expansion;274
18.1.1;11.1.1 Theoretical treatment;275
18.1.2;11.1.2 Ideal gas;275
18.1.3;11.1.3 Real fluids;276
18.2;11.2 Hydrate formation in the reservoir during production;278
18.3;11.3 Flow in the well;278
18.4;11.4 Transportation;280
18.5;11.5 Natural occurrence of hydrates;281
18.5.1;11.5.1 Seabed;281
18.5.2;11.5.2 Natural gas formations;282
18.5.3;11.5.3 Outer space;283
18.6;References;285
19;Appendix: Programs on the Accompanying Web Site;288
20;Index;292
20.1;A;292
20.2;B;292
20.3;C;292
20.4;D;292
20.5;E;292
20.6;F;293
20.7;G;293
20.8;H;293
20.9;I;293
20.10;J;293
20.11;K;293
20.12;L;293
20.13;M;294
20.14;N;294
20.15;O;294
20.16;P;294
20.17;Q;295
20.18;R;295
20.19;S;295
20.20;T;295
20.21;U;295
20.22;V;295
20.23;W;295
20.24;X;295