Cavallotti / Cerulli Age-Related Changes of the Human Eye

1. Auflage 2008
ISBN: 978-1-59745-507-7
Verlag: Humana Press
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 410 Seiten

Reihe: Aging Medicine

Aging research on the human eyes crosses all areas of ophthalmology and also relies upon biological, morphological, physiological, and biochemical tools for its study. This book reviews all aspects of human eye aging. In addition to descriptions of age-related changes in almost all the structures of the human eyes, the authors also include interesting accounts of personal experiments and data. It provides an extensive panorama of what happens during aging in the eye.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Cavallotti, Carlo

Cerulli, Luciano

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Preface;6
2;Contents;8
3;Contributors;12
4;Chapter 1;15
4.1;Aging as Risk Factor in Eye Disease;15
4.1.1;Keywords Cataract, Glaucoma, ARM D, Corneal opacity, Diabetic retinopathy;15
4.1.2;References;21
4.1.3;Recommended Bibliographic Resources;22
4.1.3.1;Recent Books on Vision Disorders in Old Age (www.amazon.com);22
5;Chapter 2;23
5.1;Age-Related Changes of the Eyelid;23
5.1.1;Introduction;23
5.1.2;Changes in Anatomy and Kinematics;25
5.1.3;Myofiber Abnormalities;27
5.1.4;Mitochondrial Alterations;31
5.1.5;Sarcoplasma;36
5.1.6;Connective Tissue Changes;42
5.1.7;References;44
6;Chapter 3;49
6.1;Aging Effects on the Optics of the Eye;49
6.1.1;Introduction;49
6.1.2;Retinal Image Quality as a Function of Age;50
6.1.3;Aberrations of the Eye as a Function of Age;53
6.1.4;Aberrations of Cornea as a Function of Age;54
6.1.5;Coupling of Corneal and Internal Aberrations as a Function of Age;55
6.1.6;Optics of the Aging Eye and Intraocular Lenses;55
6.1.7;References;57
7;Chapter 4;59
7.1;Aging of the Cornea;59
7.1.1;Clinical Conditions;59
7.1.1.1;Corneal Arcus;59
7.1.2;Prevalence;60
7.1.3;Biochemical Aspects;61
7.1.3.1;Deep Crocodile Shagreen;61
7.1.3.2;White Limbal Gridle of Vogt;62
7.1.3.3;Hassall-Henle Bodies;62
7.1.4;Cornea Shape;63
7.1.4.1;Astigmatism;63
7.1.4.2;Structure;65
7.1.4.3;Corneal Thickness;64
7.1.4.4;Corneal Aberration;65
7.1.5;Structure;65
7.1.5.1;Epithelium;65
7.1.5.2;Bowman’s Membrane;66
7.1.5.3;Subbasal Nerve Plexus;66
7.1.5.4;Stroma;67
7.1.5.5;Descemet’s Membrane;69
7.1.5.6;Endothelium;70
7.1.6;References;71
8;Chapter 5;75
8.1;The Aging of the Human Lens;75
8.1.1;Introduction;75
8.1.2;Lens Embryology;76
8.1.3;Morphology of the Human Lens;78
8.1.3.1;Lens Capsule;80
8.1.3.1.1;Anatomy of the Lens Capsule;80
8.1.3.1.2;Ultrastructure of the Lens Capsule;81
8.1.3.1.2.1;Growth and Thickness of the Lens Capsule;81
8.1.3.1.2.2;Mechanical Properties of the Posterior Lens Capsule;82
8.1.3.1.2.3;Aging of the Lens Capsule;83
8.1.3.2;The Ocular Lens Epithelium;83
8.1.3.2.1;Ultrastructure of the Lens Epithelium;83
8.1.3.2.2;The Epithelium as the Major Site of Transport, Metabolism and Detoxification;85
8.1.3.2.3;Programmed Cell Death and the Lens Epithelium;85
8.1.3.3;Lens Fiber Cells;86
8.1.3.3.1;Fiber Cell Organization and Development of Lens Sutures;86
8.1.3.3.2;The Contribution of Major Fiber Proteins to Sutural Development and Growth;87
8.1.3.3.3;Lens Sutural Anatomy;87
8.1.3.3.3.1;Suture Formation after Birth;89
8.1.3.3.3.2;Simple Star Suture Formation;89
8.1.3.3.3.3;Star and Complex Star Suture Formation;89
8.1.4;The Physical Basis for Transparency of the Crystalline Lens;91
8.1.4.1;Small Particle Scattering;92
8.1.4.2;Large Particle Scattering;92
8.1.5;The Influence of Sutural Architecture on Lens Optical Quality;93
8.1.6;Nuclear Fiber Compaction as a Function of Aging and Cataractogenesis;94
8.1.7;Biometric, Optical and Physical Changes in the Human Crystalline Lens with Aging;96
8.1.7.1;The Change in Equivalent Refractive Index and the Lens Paradox;97
8.1.7.2;Crystalline Lens Position Modification with Age;98
8.1.8;Zonular Apparatus;98
8.1.8.1;Synthesis and Structural Organization of Zonular Fibers During Development and Aging;98
8.1.8.1.1;Zonular Fibers Electron Microscopy;99
8.1.8.1.2;Anterior Shift of Zonular Insertion onto the Anterior Surface of Lens with Age;99
8.1.8.1.2.1;Anatomical Changes of the Zonular Insertion;99
8.1.9;Lens Metabolic Changes with Age and the Effects of External Agents;100
8.1.9.1;Introduction;100
8.1.9.2;Age-related Changes in Calcium, Sodium, Potassium and Lens Membrane Permeability;101
8.1.9.3;Lens Phospholipid Changes with Age and Cataracts;101
8.1.9.4;Age-related Changes in Ganglioside Composition;103
8.1.9.5;Water Content Modifications in Lens with Aging;104
8.1.9.6;Oxidative Stress in the Aging Lens;104
8.1.9.6.1;Age-related Decline in Ibiquitin Conjugation;105
8.1.9.7;Hormonal Influence on Lens with Aging;106
8.1.10;The Effect of Physical Agents on the Aging Lens;107
8.1.10.1;Ultraviolet Radiation;107
8.1.10.2;Medications and Cataracts;109
8.1.10.2.1;Aspirin and Nonsteroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs;109
8.1.10.2.2;Diuretics and Antihypertensives;110
8.1.10.2.3;Cholesterol-lowering Medications;111
8.1.10.2.4;Allopurinol;111
8.1.10.2.5;Antimalarials;111
8.1.10.2.6;Phenothiazines;111
8.1.10.2.7;Amiodarone;112
8.1.11;A Clinical Approach to Lens Modifications with Aging;112
8.1.11.1;Introduction;112
8.1.11.2;Lens Bio-densitometric Changes Through Aging;112
8.1.11.2.1;Scheimpflug Photography Features;112
8.1.11.2.2;Results from Scheimpflug Photography;113
8.1.11.3;Optical Changes of the Human Crystalline Lens Through Life;116
8.1.11.3.1;Modulation Transfer Function;116
8.1.11.3.2;MTF Results Measured with the Optical Quality Analysis System;117
8.1.11.3.3;Wavefront Analysis;118
8.1.11.3.4;Results on Ocular and Corneal Wavefront Errors Measured with a Hartmann–Shack Aberrometer;119
8.1.11.4;Conclusions;119
8.1.12;References;125
8.1.12.1;References – Lens Embryology;125
8.1.12.2;References – Morphology of the Human Lens;126
8.1.12.3;References – Capsule;127
8.1.12.4;References – Epithelium;129
8.1.12.5;References – Lens Sutural Anatomy;130
8.1.12.6;References – Physical Basis for Transparency;131
8.1.12.7;References – Sutural Architecture Influences Lens Optical Quality;132
8.1.12.8;References – Sutural Architecture Influences Lens Optical Quality;132
8.1.12.9;References – Nuclear Fiber Compaction as a Function of Aging and Cataractogenesis;133
8.1.12.10;References – Biometric, Physical, Optical, Refractive Index Changes and Lens Paradox;134
8.1.12.11;References – Crystalline Lens Position Modification with Age;135
8.1.12.12;References Zonular Apparatus Modifications;135
8.1.12.13;References – Electrolites and Membrane Permeability Modifications;136
8.1.12.14;References – Phospholipid Changes;137
8.1.12.15;References – Gangliosides Modifications;138
8.1.12.16;References – Water Content Modifications;138
8.1.12.17;References – Oxidative stress in cataracts;139
8.1.12.18;References – Age-related Decline in Ubiquitin Conjugation;140
8.1.12.19;References – Hormonal Influence on Lenses with Aging;141
8.1.12.20;References – UVR Effect on the Lens;142
8.1.12.21;References – Medications and Cataracts;143
8.1.12.22;References – Clinical Approach to Lens Modifications with Ageing;145
9;Chapter 6;147
9.1;The Extracellular Matrix of the Aged Human Trabecular Meshwork: Changes of Glucosaminoglycans;147
9.1.1;Introduction;147
9.1.2;Materials and Methods;149
9.1.2.1;Light Microscopy;149
9.1.2.2;Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM);150
9.1.2.3;Staining of Acidic Proteoglycans;150
9.1.2.4;ALCIAN-PAS Method;150
9.1.2.5;Quantitative Analysis of Images;151
9.1.3;Statistics;151
9.1.4;Results;151
9.1.5;Discussion;156
9.1.5.1;Stroma of the Trabecular Meshwork;157
9.1.5.2;Morphological Changes of the Trabecular Meshwork;157
9.1.5.3;Description of Extracellular Matrix;157
9.1.6;Conclusions;157
9.1.7;References;158
10;Chapter 7;161
10.1;Glial and Mobile Cells in the Iris of the Aging Human Eye;161
10.1.1;Introduction;161
10.1.2;Microglia;163
10.1.2.1;Aging of the Macroglia (Müller Cells and Astrocytes);163
10.1.2.2;Astrocytes in Elderly Individuals;164
10.1.2.3;Glial Cells in Elderly Individuals;164
10.1.2.4;Reactive Astrocytes;165
10.1.2.5;Hypertrophic Astrocytes;165
10.1.2.6;Aging of the Microglia;166
10.1.3;Lymphocytes;166
10.1.4;Macrophages;167
10.1.5;References;168
10.1.6;Other Linked and Recent References;169
11;Chapter 8;171
11.1;Age-Related Diseases of the Vitreous;171
11.1.1;Introduction;171
11.1.2;Vitreous Composition;172
11.1.3;Vitreous Architecture;173
11.1.4;Aging;174
11.1.5;Detachment of the Posterior Vitreous;175
11.1.6;Amyloidosis;178
11.1.7;Asteroid Hyalosis;180
11.1.8;Synchysis Scintillans;181
11.1.9;Vitreous Membranes;182
11.1.9.1;Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy;187
11.1.9.1.1;Treatment;188
11.1.10;Cells within the Vitreous;189
11.1.10.1;Primary Ocular Lymphoma;190
11.1.10.1.1;Treatment;193
11.1.10.2;Vitreous Hemorrhage;194
11.1.11;Summary;197
11.1.12;References;197
12;Chapter 9;207
12.1;Age-Related Changes and/or Diseases in the Human Retina;207
12.1.1;Senile Lesions of the Retina;207
12.1.2;Age-related Changes of the Human Retina;208
12.1.3;Major Senile Diseases of the Retina;208
12.1.3.1;Senile Cataracts;209
12.1.3.2;Senile Detachment of the Retina;209
12.1.3.2.1;Cystic Degeneration of the Periphery of the Retina;209
12.1.3.2.2;Paved, Cobblestone or Pavement Degeneration as Proposed by Straatsma8 or Gonin’s Foci of Atrophic Choroidosis;210
12.1.3.2.3;Senile Degeneration of the Vitreous;210
12.1.3.3;Vascular Alterations;211
12.1.3.4;Senile Peripheral Pigment Degeneration;211
12.1.3.5;Cystic Degeneration;212
12.1.3.6;Retinoschisis;212
12.1.3.7;Latex Degeneration;213
12.1.3.8;Cobblestone Degeneration;213
12.1.4;Prevention;214
12.1.5;References;214
13;Chapter 10;217
13.1;Aging of the Retinal Pigmented Epithelium;217
13.1.1;Retinal Pigmented Epithelium (RPE);217
13.1.1.1;Micro-anatomical Details;218
13.1.1.2;Increase in Granules of Lipofuscin;220
13.1.1.3;Increase in Melanin Granules;221
13.1.1.4;Increase of Complex Granules;222
13.1.2;Personal Results;222
13.1.2.1;Light Microscopy;222
13.1.2.2;Staining of Lipids;223
13.1.2.3;Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM);223
13.1.2.4;Quantitative Analysis of Images;223
13.1.2.5;Statistical Analysis of Data;223
13.1.3;Results;224
13.1.4;Discussion;227
13.1.5;References;228
13.1.6;Recent Books on RPE Disorders in Old Age;229
14;Chapter 11;231
14.1;The Aging of the Choroid;231
14.1.1;Anatomy of the Choroid;231
14.1.1.1;Histology;232
14.1.1.1.1;The Suprachoroidal Layer or Lamina Fusca;232
14.1.1.1.2;Choroidal Stroma;232
14.1.1.1.3;The Choriocapillaris;232
14.1.1.1.4;The Lamina Vitrea or Bruch’s Membrane;233
14.1.1.2;Vascularization;233
14.1.1.2.1;The Anterior Ciliary Arteries;233
14.1.2;The Posterior Ciliary Arteries;234
14.1.2.1;Short Posterior Ciliary Arteries (SPCA);234
14.1.2.2;Long Posterior Ciliary Arteries (LPCA);234
14.1.2.3;Vascular Patterns of the Posterior Ciliary Arteries and their Branches;234
14.1.2.3.1;Areas Supplied by the Anterior Ciliary Arteries;236
14.1.2.3.2;Areas Supplied by the Short Posterior Ciliary Arteries;236
14.1.2.3.3;Areas Supplied by the Long Posterior Ciliary Arteries;237
14.1.2.3.4;The Watershed Zone in the Vascular Bed of the PCAs;237
14.1.2.3.5;Watershed Zones Between the Territories Supplied by the PCAs and the Anterior Ciliary Arteries;237
14.1.2.3.6;Venous Drainage of the Choroid;238
14.1.3;Physiology of the Choroid;238
14.1.4;Growth and Aging;238
14.1.4.1;Age-related Changes in the Choroid;239
14.1.4.1.1;Histological Studies of Age-related Changes in the Choroid;239
14.1.4.1.2;Accumulation of Debris;239
14.1.4.1.3;Lipid Deposits;240
14.1.4.1.4;Changes in the Extracellular Matrix;240
14.1.4.1.5;Age-related Changes in ICG-angiographic Findings in Normal Subjects;240
14.1.4.2;Age-related Diseases that Preferentially Target the Choroid;243
14.1.4.2.1;Age-related Macular Degeneration (AMD);244
14.1.4.2.2;Disorders Affecting the PCAs Circulation;245
14.1.4.2.3;Acute Ischemic Lesions of the Choroid;246
14.1.4.2.3.1;Evolutionary Stage of the Lesions;246
14.1.4.2.3.2;Size of the Artery or Arteriole Involved in the Occlusion;246
14.1.4.2.3.3;Severity of the Ischemia;246
14.1.4.2.4;Ischemic Lesions of the Macular Choroid;246
14.1.4.2.5;Hypertensive Choroidopathy;247
14.1.4.2.5.1;Anomalies Involving the Choroidal Vascular Bed;248
14.1.4.2.5.2;Lesions of the RPE;248
14.1.4.2.5.3;Serous Detachment of the Neuroretina;248
14.1.5;Conclusion;248
14.1.6;References;249
15;Chapter 12;253
15.1;Age-Related Macular Degeneration I:Types and Future Directions;253
15.1.1;Introduction;253
15.1.2;Etiology and Pathogenesis;254
15.1.3;RPE;254
15.1.3.1;Bruch’s Membrane;255
15.1.3.2;Basal Lamina Deposits;255
15.1.3.3;Drusen;255
15.1.4;Risk Factors for AMD;256
15.1.4.1;Age;256
15.1.4.2;Family History;256
15.1.4.3;Gender;256
15.1.4.4;Race;257
15.1.4.5;Smoking;257
15.1.4.6;Hypertension;257
15.1.4.7;Nutrition;257
15.1.4.8;Comorbidity;257
15.1.5;AMD Types;258
15.1.5.1;Neovascular AMD;258
15.1.5.1.1;Flouresceine Angiography;258
15.1.5.1.2;Optical Coherence Tomography;260
15.1.5.2;Non-neovascular AMD;261
15.1.6;Current Treatment Options;262
15.1.6.1;NV-AMD;262
15.1.6.1.1;Laser Photocoagulation;262
15.1.6.1.2;Photodynamic Treatment;262
15.1.6.1.3;Transpupillary Thermotherapy;262
15.1.6.1.4;Anti-angiogenic Therapies;263
15.1.6.1.5;Cortisone and Cortisene;264
15.1.6.1.6;Surgical Removal;264
15.1.6.1.7;Retinal Rotation;265
15.1.6.1.8;Transplantation;265
15.1.6.2;NN-AMD;266
15.1.6.2.1;Vitamins;266
15.1.6.2.2;Lutein and Zeuxanthin;266
15.1.6.2.3;Rheopheresis;266
15.1.6.2.4;Laser Application;266
15.1.7;Future Directions;266
15.1.8;References;267
16;Chapter 13;271
16.1;Age-Related Macular Degeneration II: Idiopathic Macular Holes;271
16.1.1;Macular Holes;271
16.1.2;Diagnostic Tools;272
16.1.3;Treatment Options;273
16.1.4;References;276
17;Chapter 14;279
17.1;Age-Related Macular Degeneration III: Epiretinal Membranes;279
17.1.1;Introduction;279
17.1.1.1;Diagnostic Tools;280
17.1.1.2;Treatment options and prognosis;282
17.1.2;References;284
18;Chapter 15;287
18.1;Macular Degeneration: Ultrastructural Age-Related Changes;287
18.1.1;Introduction;288
18.1.2;Methods;289
18.1.2.1;Selection of Materials;289
18.1.2.2;Transmission Electron Microscopy;290
18.1.2.3;Light Microscopy;290
18.1.2.4;Polarization Microscopy;290
18.1.2.5;For the Study of Lipids;290
18.1.2.6;For the Study of Proteoglycan Structures;290
18.1.2.7;For the Study of Collagen Fibrils;291
18.1.2.8;Statistical Analysis;291
18.1.3;Results;291
18.1.3.1;Alterations of the RPE;291
18.1.3.2;Bruch’s Membrane Changes;292
18.1.3.2.1;Age-related Changes in the Macular Region;292
18.1.3.2.2;Basement Membrane of RPE;292
18.1.3.2.3;Thicking of Capillary Basement;292
18.1.3.2.4;Peroxisomal Contribution to Basement Membrane Thickening of RPE;292
18.1.3.2.5;Histochemical Composition of Bruch’s Membrane;293
18.1.3.3;Statistical Analysis of Anisotropy;293
18.1.4;Discussion;294
18.1.5;Conclusions;298
18.1.6;References;298
19;Chapter 16;301
19.1;Non-Exudative Macular Degeneration and Management;301
19.1.1;Introduction;301
19.1.2;Normal Aging Changes;302
19.1.3;Non-neovascular Abnormalities in AMD;302
19.1.4;Stages of Non-Exudative AMD;303
19.1.5;Management of Non-Exudative AMD: Clinical Trials;304
19.1.5.1;Age-Related Eye Disease Study (AREDS)6;305
19.1.5.2;Complications of Age-Related Macular Degeneration Prevention Trial (CAPT)8;305
19.1.5.3;Prophylactic Treatment of Age-Related Macular Degeneration (PTAMD)7;305
19.1.5.4;Choroidal Neovascularization Prevention Trial (CNVPT)5;306
19.1.5.5;16 Non-Exudative Macular Degeneration and Management 293In both arms of the study, the area of Drusen decreased with laser treatment.Although the incidence of CNV was negligibly increased in the treatment groupversus the observation group in the Bilateral Drusen Study (2.6% vs. 1.3%), the rateof CNV was higher in the Fellow Eye Study (16.9% vs. 3.3%). Visual acuityremained similar between both treatment and observation groups in the BilateralDrusen Study, but was worse in the treatment group of the Fellow ;307
19.1.5.6;Age-related Eye Disease Study II (AREDS II);307
19.1.6;Conclusion;307
19.1.7;References;308
20;Chapter 17;309
20.1;Treatment of Intraocular Pressure in Elderly Patients;309
20.1.1;Introduction;310
20.1.2;Material and Methods;311
20.1.3;Results;312
20.1.4;Discussion;313
20.1.5;References;316
21;Chapter 18;319
21.1;Aging of the Lachrymal Gland;319
21.1.1;Anatomy of the Lachrymal Gland;320
21.1.1.1;Gross Anatomy of the Lachrymal Gland;320
21.1.1.2;Histology of the Lachrymal Gland;320
21.1.1.3;Innervation of the Lachrymal Gland;321
21.1.2;Secretory Function of the Lachrymal Gland;322
21.1.2.1;Protein Secretion;322
21.1.2.2;Water Secretion;322
21.1.3;Age-Related Changes to Tear Fluid;323
21.1.4;Age-Related Changes in the Lachrymal Gland;323
21.1.4.1;Human Studies;324
21.1.4.2;Animal Studies;326
21.1.5;Conclusion;328
21.1.6;References;328
22;Chapter 19;333
22.1;The World According to Blink: Blinking and Aging;333
22.1.1;Neuroanatomical and Neurophysiological Background of the Blink Circuit;334
22.1.2;Blink Rate;338
22.1.3;Eyelid Kinematics;339
22.1.4;Facial Movement Disorders;342
22.1.4.1;Hemifacial paralysis (Bell’s palsy);342
22.1.4.2;Apraxia;346
22.1.4.3;Hemifacial spasm;346
22.1.4.4;Blepharospasm;348
22.1.5;Blinking as a Tool in Timing of Reflexes;350
22.1.6;Conclusion;350
22.1.7;References;351
23;Chapter 20;357
23.1;Age-Related Changes in the Oculomotor System;357
23.1.1;Introduction;357
23.1.2;Structural and Functional Organization of the Human Oculomotor System;359
23.1.3;Age-related Changes in the Supranuclear Level of the Human Oculomotor System;360
23.1.3.1;The Cerebellum;360
23.1.3.2;Age-related Changes in the Vestibulocerebellar Pathway;363
23.1.3.3;Age-related Changes in the Spinocerebellar Pathway;365
23.1.3.3.1;The Muscle Spindle;366
23.1.3.3.2;Tendon Receptors;368
23.1.3.4;Age-related Changes in the Cerebrocerebellum and the Pontocerebellar Pathway;370
23.1.3.4.1;The Frontal Eye Field (FEF);370
23.1.3.4.2;The Parietal Eye Field (PEF);372
23.1.3.4.3;The Paramedian Pontine Reticular Formation (PPRF);372
23.1.3.4.4;Superior Colliculus (SC);373
23.1.4;Age-Related Changes in the Subnuclear System of the Oculomotor System;374
23.1.4.1;Cranial Nerves;375
23.1.4.2;Extraocular Muscles;377
23.1.4.2.1;Age-related Changes in the Muscle Fiber Population;379
23.1.4.2.2;Age-related Changes in the Distal Insertions and Associated Structures;382
23.1.5;Restitution of the Oculomotor System;383
23.1.6;References;384
24;Chapter 21;389
24.1;Rehabilitation of Low Vision in Aged People;389
24.1.1;Visual Impairment in the Elderly;389
24.1.2;Management of Glaucoma;392
24.1.3;Degenerative Myopia;400
24.1.4;References;401
25;Chapter 22;407
25.1;Many Suggestions to Protect the Eyes in Aging People;407
25.1.1;Five Steps for Protecting Your Eyesight;407
25.1.2;Common Eye Problems;408
25.1.3;Eye Diseases and Disorders;408
25.1.4;Age-related Macular Degeneration (AMD);409
25.1.5;Diabetic Retinopathy;409
25.1.6;Retinal Detachment;410
25.1.7;Low Vision;410
25.1.8;References;411
26;Index;413