Cheng The Principles of Astronomical Telescope Design

1. Auflage 2010
ISBN: 978-0-387-88791-3
Verlag: Springer-Verlag
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: Adobe DRM (»Systemvoraussetzungen)

E-Book, Englisch, 634 Seiten

This book presents a complete summary of the author's twenty five years of experience in telescope design. It provides a general introduction to every aspect of telescope design. It also discusses the theory behind telescope design in depth, which makes it a good reference book for professionals. It covers Radio, Infrared, Optical, X-Ray and Gamma-Ray wavelengths. Originally published in Chinese.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Cheng, Jingquan

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Astrophysics and Space Science Library;3
2;Recently Published in the ASSL series;4
3;Contents;8
4;Preface of English Edition;14
5;Preface of Chinese Edition;17
6;Fundamentals of Optical Telescopes;20
6.1;1.1 A Brief History of Optical Telescopes;20
6.2;1.2 General Astronomical Requirements;25
6.2.1;1.2.1 Angular Resolution;25
6.2.2;1.2.2 Light Collecting Power and Limiting Star Magnitude;33
6.2.2.1;1.2.2.1 Light Collecting Power;33
6.2.2.2;1.2.2.2 Limiting Star Magnitude;37
6.2.3;1.2.3 Field of View and Combined Efficiency;44
6.2.4;1.2.4 Atmospheric Windows and Site Selection;47
6.3;1.3 Fundamentals of Astronomical Optics;51
6.3.1;1.3.1 Optical Systems for Astronomical Telescopes;51
6.3.1.1;1.3.1.1 Prime Focus and Newtonian Focus Systems;51
6.3.1.2;1.3.1.2 Cassegrain and Nasmyth Focus Systems;52
6.3.1.3;1.3.1.3 Coude Focus;54
6.3.1.4;1.3.1.4 Schmidt and Three-Mirror Optical System;55
6.3.1.5;1.3.1.5 Folding and Other Optical Systems;57
6.3.2;1.3.2 Aberrations and Their Calculations;59
6.3.2.1;1.3.2.1 Spherical Aberration;61
6.3.2.2;1.3.2.2 Coma;62
6.3.2.3;1.3.2.3 Astigmatism and Field Curvature;63
6.3.2.4;1.3.2.4 Distortion;64
6.3.3;1.3.3 Formulas of Telescope Aberrations;65
6.3.4;1.3.4 Field Corrector Design;70
6.3.4.1;1.3.4.1 Corrector Design for Prime Focus System;70
6.3.4.2;1.3.4.2 Correctors for Cassegrain System;75
6.3.5;1.3.5 Ray Tracing, Spot Diagram, and Merit Function;76
6.4;1.4 Modern Optical Theory;81
6.4.1;1.4.1 Optical Transfer Function;81
6.4.2;1.4.2 Wave Aberrations and Modulation Transfer Function;87
6.4.3;1.4.3 Wavefront Error and the Strehl Ratio;92
6.4.4;1.4.4 Image Spatial Frequency;93
6.4.5;1.4.5 Image Property of a Segmented Mirror System;100
6.5;References;103
7;Mirror Design For Optical Telescopes;106
7.1;2.1 Specifications for Optical Mirror Design;106
7.1.1;2.1.1 Fundamental Requirements for Optical Mirrors;106
7.1.2;2.1.2 Mirror Surface Error and Mirror Support Systems;109
7.1.2.1;2.1.2.1 Axial Support for Optical Mirrors;109
7.1.2.2;2.1.2.2 Radial Support for Optical Mirrors;115
7.1.3;2.1.3 Surface Error Fitting and Slope Error Expression;119
7.2;2.2 Lightweight Primary Mirror Design;120
7.2.1;2.2.1 Significance of Lightweight Mirrors for Telescopes;120
7.2.2;2.2.2 Thin Mirror Design;121
7.2.3;2.2.3 Honeycomb Mirror Design;125
7.2.4;2.2.4 Multi-Mirror Telescopes;128
7.2.5;2.2.5 Segmented Mirror Telescopes;130
7.2.6;2.2.6 Metal and Lightweight Mirrors;134
7.3;2.3 Mirror Polishing and Mirror Supporting;138
7.3.1;2.3.1 Material Properties of Optical Mirrors;138
7.3.2;2.3.2 Optical Mirror Polishing;141
7.3.3;2.3.3 Vacuum Coating;144
7.3.4;2.3.4 Mirror Supporting Mechanisms;145
7.3.4.1;2.3.4.1 Positioning Support Systems for Optical Mirrors;145
7.3.4.2;2.3.4.2 Flotation Support Systems for Optical Mirrors;149
7.4;2.4 Mirror Seeing and Stray Light Control;150
7.4.1;2.4.1 Mirror Seeing Effect;150
7.4.2;2.4.2 Stray Light Control;154
7.4.2.1;2.4.2.1 Baffle and Stop Design;155
7.4.2.2;2.4.2.2 Stray Light Analysis;156
7.5;References;158
8;Telescope Structures and Control System;159
8.1;3.1 Telescope Mounting;159
8.1.1;3.1.1 Equatorial Mounting;159
8.1.2;3.1.2 Altitude-Azimuth Mounting;161
8.1.2.1;3.1.2.1 Mechanical Advantages of an Alt-Azimuth Mounting;161
8.1.2.2;3.1.2.2 Coordinate Transformation and the Zenith Blind Spot;162
8.1.2.3;3.1.2.3 Field Rotation and Its Compensation;167
8.1.3;3.1.3 Stewart Platform Mounting;169
8.1.4;3.1.4 Fixed Mirror or Fixed Altitude Mountings;176
8.2;3.2 Telescope Tube and Other Structure Design;177
8.2.1;3.2.1 Specifications for Telescope Tube Design;177
8.2.2;3.2.2 Telescope Tube Design;178
8.2.3;3.2.3 Support Vane Design for Secondary Mirror;182
8.2.4;3.2.4 Telescope Bearing Design;183
8.2.5;3.2.5 Structural Static Analysis;188
8.2.5.1;3.2.5.1 A Brief Introduction to Finite Element Analysis;188
8.2.5.2;3.2.5.2 Purposes of Static Structural Analysis for Telescopes;190
8.3;3.3 Telescope Drive and Control;192
8.3.1;3.3.1 Specifications of a Telescope Drive System;192
8.3.1.1;3.3.1.1 Slewing;192
8.3.1.2;3.3.1.2 Star Acquisition;192
8.3.1.3;3.3.1.3 Star Tracking;192
8.3.1.4;3.3.1.4 Scanning;193
8.3.1.5;3.3.1.5 Chopping and Fast Switching;193
8.3.1.6;3.3.1.6 Whole Sky Survey;193
8.3.2;3.3.2 Trends in Drive System Design;194
8.3.3;3.3.3 Encoder Systems for Telescopes;195
8.3.3.1;3.3.3.1 Optical Encoder;195
8.3.3.2;3.3.3.2 Inductosyns;201
8.3.3.3;3.3.3.3 Other Angular Encoders;205
8.3.4;3.3.4 Pointing Error Corrections;205
8.3.5;3.3.5 Servo Control and Distributed Intelligence;207
8.3.6;3.3.6 Star Guiding;212
8.4;3.4 Structural Dynamic Analysis;216
8.4.1;3.4.1 Wind and Earthquake Spectrums;216
8.4.1.1;3.4.1.1 Random Property of Wind;216
8.4.1.2;3.4.1.2 Wind Loading on Structures;218
8.4.1.3;3.4.1.3 Vortex Shedding Resonance;220
8.4.1.4;3.4.1.4 Wind Pressure Distribution on a Mirror Surface;221
8.4.1.5;3.4.1.5 Earthquake Response Spectrum;222
8.4.2;3.4.2 Dynamic Simulation of Telescope Structures;223
8.4.2.1;3.4.2.1 Modal Analysis;223
8.4.2.2;3.4.2.2 Transient Analysis;224
8.4.2.3;3.4.2.3 Frequency Response Analysis;225
8.4.2.4;3.4.2.4 Forced Vibration Analysis;226
8.4.2.5;3.4.2.5 Spectrum Response Analysis;228
8.4.3;3.4.3 Combined Structural and Control Simulation;229
8.4.4;3.4.4 Structure Vibration Control;230
8.4.4.1;3.4.4.1 Tuned Mass Dampers;230
8.4.4.2;3.4.4.2 Viscoelastic Layer Damping;233
8.4.4.3;3.4.4.3 Optimization of the Motion Profile;235
8.4.5;3.4.5 Telescope Foundation Design;236
8.5;References;238
9;Advanced Techniques for Optical Telescopes;241
9.1;4.1 Active and Adaptive Optics;241
9.1.1;4.1.1 Basic Principles of Active and Adaptive Optics;241
9.1.2;4.1.2 Wavefront Sensors;244
9.1.2.1;4.1.2.1 Shack-Hartmann Wavefront Sensor;245
9.1.2.2;4.1.2.2 Pyramid Prism Sensor;248
9.1.2.3;4.1.2.3 Interferometer Wavefront Sensor;251
9.1.2.4;4.1.2.4 Phase Contrast Wavefront Sensor;253
9.1.3;4.1.3 Actuators, Deformable Mirrors, Phase Correctors, and Metrology Systems;254
9.1.3.1;4.1.3.1 Actuators;255
9.1.3.2;4.1.3.2 Deformable Mirrors;257
9.1.3.3;4.1.3.3 Liquid Crystal Phase Correctors;259
9.1.3.4;4.1.3.4 Metrology Systems;260
9.1.4;4.1.4 Active Optics System and Phasing Sensors;262
9.1.4.1;4.1.4.1 Monolithic Mirror Active Optics;262
9.1.4.2;4.1.4.2 Segmented Mirror Active Optics;263
9.1.4.3;4.1.4.3 Dispersed Fringe Phasing Sensor;266
9.1.4.4;4.1.4.4 Template Phasing Sensor;267
9.1.4.5;4.1.4.5 Young-Shack-Hartmann Phasing Sensor;271
9.1.4.6;4.1.4.6 Mach-Zehnder Phasing Sensor;272
9.1.4.7;4.1.4.7 Pyramid Phasing Sensor;275
9.1.5;4.1.5 Curvature Sensors and Tip-Tilt Devices;276
9.1.5.1;4.1.5.1 Dual-Image Curvature Sensors;277
9.1.5.2;4.1.5.2 Single-Image Wavefront and Curvature Sensor;279
9.1.5.3;4.1.5.3 Tip-Tilt and Curvature Compensation Devices;281
9.1.6;4.1.6 Atmospheric Disturbance and Adaptive Optics Compensation;282
9.1.7;4.1.7 Artificial Laser Guide Star and Adaptive Optics;288
9.1.7.1;4.1.7.1 Sodium Beacon and LGS Cone Effect;289
9.1.7.2;4.1.7.2 Rayleigh Beacon;290
9.1.7.3;4.1.7.3 Other Limitations;291
9.1.8;4.1.8 Atmosphere Tomography and Multi-Conjugate Adaptive Optics;293
9.1.8.1;4.1.8.1 Atmosphere Tomography;293
9.1.8.2;4.1.8.2 Multi-Conjugate Adaptive Optics;297
9.1.9;4.1.9 Adaptive Secondary Mirror Design;298
9.2;4.2 Optical Interferometers;300
9.2.1;4.2.1 Speckle Interferometer Technique;300
9.2.2;4.2.2 Michelson Interferometer;304
9.2.3;4.2.3 Fizeau Interferometry;310
9.2.4;4.2.4 Intensity Interferometer;311
9.2.5;4.2.5 Amplitude Interferometer;318
9.3;References;323
10;Space Telescope Projects and their Development;326
10.1;5.1 Orbit Environmental Conditions;326
10.1.1;5.1.1 Orbit Definition;327
10.1.1.1;5.1.1.1 Low Earth Orbit;327
10.1.1.2;5.1.1.2 Geosynchronous Orbit;327
10.1.1.3;5.1.1.3 Geostationary Orbit;327
10.1.1.4;5.1.1.4 Polar Orbit;328
10.1.1.5;5.1.1.5 Sun-Synchronous Orbit;328
10.1.1.6;5.1.1.6 Lagrangian Point;328
10.1.2;5.1.2 Orbit Thermal Conditions;329
10.1.3;5.1.3 Other Orbit Conditions;333
10.1.3.1;5.1.3.1 Effects of the Upper Atmosphere;333
10.1.3.2;5.1.3.2 Plasmas and Spacecraft Charging;333
10.1.3.3;5.1.3.3 Trapped High Energy Particles on Space;334
10.1.3.4;5.1.3.4 Solar Particle Events and Cosmic Rays;336
10.1.3.5;5.1.3.5 Gravity Gradient and Aerodynamic Torques;336
10.1.3.6;5.1.3.6 Launch Conditions;337
10.2;5.2 Attitude Control of Space Telescopes;338
10.2.1;5.2.1 Attitude Sensors;338
10.2.1.1;5.2.1.1 Gyroscopes;338
10.2.1.2;5.2.1.2 Star Tracker, Horizon Indicator and Sun Sensors;339
10.2.2;5.2.2 Attitude Actuators;340
10.3;5.3 Space Telescope Projects;340
10.3.1;5.3.1 Hubble Space Telescope;340
10.3.2;5.3.2 James Webb Space Telescope;343
10.3.3;5.3.3 The Space Interferometry Mission and Other Space Programs;348
10.4;References;353
11;Fundamentals of Radio Telescopes;355
11.1;6.1 Brief History of Radio Telescopes;355
11.2;6.2 Scientific Requirements for Radio Telescopes;357
11.3;6.3 Atmospheric Radio Windows and Site Selection;361
11.4;6.4 Parameters of Radio Antennas;367
11.4.1;6.4.1 Radiation Pattern;367
11.4.2;6.4.2 Antenna Gain;368
11.4.3;6.4.3 Antenna Temperature and Noise Temperature;369
11.4.4;6.4.4 Antenna Efficiency;371
11.4.5;6.4.5 Polarization Properties;373
11.4.6;6.4.6 Optical Arrangement of Radio Antennas;375
11.4.6.1;6.4.6.1 Parameter Selection for Parabolic Reflector Antenna;375
11.4.6.2;6.4.6.2 Parameters of Cassegrain Antennas;379
11.4.7;6.4.7 Characteristics of Offset Antennas;384
11.5;6.5 Radio Telescope Receivers;390
11.6;References;391
12;Radio Telescope Design;393
12.1;7.1 Antenna Tolerance and Homologous Design;393
12.1.1;7.1.1 Transmission Loss of Electromagnetic Waves;393
12.1.2;7.1.2 Antenna Tolerance Theory;395
12.1.3;7.1.3 Antenna Homology;400
12.1.4;7.1.4 Antenna Surface Best Fitting;403
12.1.5;7.1.5 Positional Tolerances of Antenna Reflector and Feed;406
12.1.6;7.1.6 Aperture Blockage and Ground Radiation Pickup;412
12.1.7;7.1.7 Antenna Surface Fitting Through Ray Tracing;417
12.2;7.2 Radio Telescope Structure Design;420
12.2.1;7.2.1 General Types of Radio Antennas;420
12.2.1.1;7.2.1.1 Radio Antennas;420
12.2.1.2;7.2.1.2 Feed and Feed Horns;424
12.2.1.3;7.2.1.3 Radio Antenna Mountings;427
12.2.2;7.2.2 Steerable Parabolic Antenna Design;428
12.2.3;7.2.3 Wind Effect on Antenna Structures;434
12.2.4;7.2.4 Active Control of Radio Telescopes;436
12.2.4.1;7.2.4.1 Laser Quadrant Displacement Detector;438
12.2.4.2;7.2.4.2 Laser Ranger System;439
12.3;7.3 Radio Interferometers;444
12.3.1;7.3.1 Fundamentals of Radio Interferometers;444
12.3.2;7.3.2 Aperture Synthesis Telescopes;446
12.3.3;7.3.3 Weiner-Khinchin and Van Cittert-Zernike Theorems;449
12.3.4;7.3.4 Calibration: Active Optics After Observation;450
12.3.5;7.3.5 Very Large Array, Expanded Very Large Array, and Square Kilometer Array;453
12.3.6;7.3.6 Very Long Baseline Interferometer;454
12.3.7;7.3.7 Space Radio Interferometers;455
12.4;References;456
13;Millimeter and Submillimeter Wavelength Telescopes;458
13.1;8.1 Thermal Effects on Millimeter Wavelength Telescopes;458
13.1.1;8.1.1 Characteristics of Millimeter Wavelength Telescopes;459
13.1.2;8.1.2 Thermal Conditions of Open Air Antennas;461
13.1.3;8.1.3 Heat Transfer Formulae;462
13.1.4;8.1.4 Panel Thermal Design;467
13.1.4.1;8.1.4.1 Absolute Temperature Error;467
13.1.4.2;8.1.4.2 Temperature Gradient Error;468
13.1.5;8.1.5 Backup Structure Thermal Design;470
13.2;8.2 Structural Design of Millimeter Wavelength Antennas;474
13.2.1;8.2.1 Panel Requirements and Manufacture;474
13.2.2;8.2.2 Backup Structure Design;478
13.2.3;8.2.3 Design of Chopping Secondary Mirror;480
13.2.4;8.2.4 Sensors, Metrology, and Optical Pointing Telescopes;483
13.2.5;8.2.5 Active Optics Used in Millimeter Antennas;486
13.2.6;8.2.6 Antenna Lightning Protection;487
13.3;8.3 Carbon Fiber Composite Materials;489
13.3.1;8.3.1 Properties of Carbon Fiber Composites;489
13.3.2;8.3.2 Thermal Deformation of Shaped Sandwiched Structures;492
13.3.3;8.3.3 CFRP-Metal Joint Design;497
13.3.3.1;8.3.3.1 Stress Distribution of a Simple Lap Joint;498
13.3.3.2;8.3.3.2 Creep Model of Epoxy Material;498
13.3.3.3;8.3.3.3 Fatigue Model of the Epoxy Joint;499
13.3.3.4;8.3.3.4 Failure Due to Differential Thermal Stresses;500
13.3.3.5;8.3.3.5 Chemical Reasons for Failure;500
13.3.3.6;8.3.3.6 Failure Due to Other Reasons;501
13.4;8.4 Holographic Measurements and Quasi-Optics;502
13.4.1;8.4.1 Holographic Measurements of Antenna Surfaces;502
13.4.2;8.4.2 Surface Panel Adjusting;508
13.4.3;8.4.3 Quasi-Optics;509
13.4.4;8.4.4 Broadband Planar Antennas;511
13.5;References;513
14;Infrared, Ultraviolet, X-Ray, and Gamma Ray Telescopes;515
14.1;9.1 Infrared Telescopes;515
14.1.1;9.1.1 Requirements of Infrared Telescopes;515
14.1.2;9.1.2 Structural Properties of Infrared Telescopes;519
14.1.3;9.1.3 Balloon-Borne and Space-Based Infrared Telescopes;523
14.2;9.2 X-Ray and Ultraviolet Telescopes;527
14.2.1;9.2.1 Properties of X-Ray Radiation;527
14.2.2;9.2.2 X-Ray Imaging Telescopes;533
14.2.3;9.2.3 Space X-ray Telescopes;538
14.2.4;9.2.4 Microarcsecond X-ray Image Mission;540
14.2.5;9.2.5 Space Ultraviolet Telescopes;543
14.3;9.3 Gamma Ray Telescopes;545
14.3.1;9.3.1 Gamma Ray Fundamentals;545
14.3.2;9.3.2 Gamma Ray Coded Mask Telescopes;546
14.3.3;9.3.3 Compton Scattering and Pair Telescopes;549
14.3.4;9.3.4 Space Gamma Ray Telescopes;552
14.3.5;9.3.5 Air Cherenkov Telescopes;553
14.3.6;9.3.6 Extensive Air Shower Array;559
14.3.7;9.3.7 Major Ground-Based Gamma Ray Projects;560
14.4;References;561
15;Gravitational Wave, Cosmic Ray and Dark Matter Telescopes;563
15.1;10.1 Gravitational Wave Telescopes;563
15.1.1;10.1.1 Gravitational Wave Fundamentals;563
15.1.2;10.1.2 Resonant Gravitational Wave Telescopes;566
15.1.3;10.1.3 Laser Interferometer Gravitational Wave Detectors;569
15.1.4;10.1.4 Important Gravitational Wave Telescope Projects;576
15.1.5;10.1.5 Other Gravitational Wave and Gravity Telescopes;578
15.2;10.2 Cosmic Ray Telescopes;580
15.2.1;10.2.1 Cosmic Ray Spectrum;580
15.2.2;10.2.2 Cosmic Ray EAS Array Telescopes;583
15.2.3;10.2.3 Cosmic Ray Fluorescence Detectors;584
15.2.4;10.2.4 Magnetic Spectrometer Detectors;587
15.3;10.3 Dark Matter Detectors;588
15.3.1;10.3.1 Cold and Hot Dark Matter;588
15.3.2;10.3.2 Detection of Neutrinos;590
15.3.3;10.3.3 Status of Neutrino Telescopes;593
15.3.4;10.3.4 Detection of Cold Dark Matter;595
15.3.4.1;10.3.4.1 Cryogenic Dark Matter Detector;595
15.3.4.2;10.3.4.2 Scintillation Dark Matter and Resonant Cavity Detectors;598
15.4;References;599
16;Review of Astronomical Telescopes;601
16.1;11.1 Introduction;601
16.2;11.2 Electromagnetic Wave and Atmosphere Transmission;602
16.3;11.3 Nonelectromagnetic Telescopes;606
16.4;11.4 Ground Astronomical Telescopes;607
16.5;11.5 Space Astronomical Telescopes;611
16.6;11.6 Man’s Space Missions;612
16.6.1;11.6.1 Moon Missions;613
16.6.2;11.6.2 Mercury Missions;615
16.6.3;11.6.3 Venus Missions;615
16.6.4;11.6.4 Mars Missions;616
16.6.5;11.6.5 Jupiter Missions;616
16.6.6;11.6.6 Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto Missions;617
16.6.7;11.6.7 Asteroids and Comet Missions;617
16.7;11.7 Reconnaissance Telescopes;618
16.8;References;620
17;Appendix A: Abbreviations of Telescope Names;621
18;Appendix B: Prefixes for Standard Units;626
19;Index;627