Currid Against the Gods

The Polemical Theology of the Old Testament
1. Auflage 2013
ISBN: 978-1-4335-3186-6
Verlag: Crossway
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: 0 - No protection

E-Book, Englisch, 160 Seiten

Did Moses borrow ideas from his cultural neighbors when he wrote the Pentateuch? Scholars disagree on the relationship between portions of the Old Testament and similar ancient Near Eastern accounts. Following in the footsteps of higher critics, some evangelical scholars now argue that Moses drew significantly from the worldview of his pagan contemporaries. Respected Old Testament scholar John Currid, however, pushes back against this trend by highlighting the highly polemical nature of Moses' writings. From the Genesis creation account to the story of Israel's exodus from Egypt, Currid shows how the biblical author's continually emphasized the futility of paganism in contrast with the unparalleled worldview of the Hebrews. Currid's penetrating analysis and thoughtful argumentation make this a ground-breaking resource for anyone interested in this ongoing discussion.

 John D. Currid (PhD, University of Chicago) is the Carl W. McMurray Professor of Old Testament at Reformed Theological Seminary. He  is currently an adjunct faculty member at the Jerusalem Center for Biblical Studies in Jerusalem, Israel , and  serves as p roject d irector of the Bethsaida Excavations Project in Israel (1995-present). He lectures and preaches worldwide.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Currid, John D.

Leseproben

2

The Nature of Polemical Thought and Writing

In the study of the relationship of Hebrew religion and culture with the environment of the ancient Near East, one of the most neglected areas of research is what can be termed polemical theology. We will begin by defining that term, and then we will explore a few concrete examples of it as it appears in the Old Testament. Polemical theology is the use by biblical writers of the thought forms and stories that were common in ancient Near Eastern culture, while filling them with radically new meaning. The biblical authors take well-known expressions and motifs from the ancient Near Eastern milieu and apply them to the person and work of Yahweh, and not to the other gods of the ancient world. Polemical theology rejects any encroachment of false gods into orthodox belief; there is an absolute intolerance of polytheism. Polemical theology is monotheistic to the very core.

The primary purpose of polemical theology is to demonstrate emphatically and graphically the distinctions between the worldview of the Hebrews and the beliefs and practices of the rest of the ancient Near East.1 It helps to show that Hebrew thought is not a mere mouthpiece of other ancient Near Eastern cultures. Even the notorious higher critic Hermann Gunkel recognized this fact when he commented, “How incomparably superior the Hebrew legend is to the Babylonian! . . . And this also we may say, that the Babylonian legend strongly impresses us by its barbaric character, whereas the Hebrew legend is far nearer and more human to us.” 2 Although I sharply disagree with Gunkel’s portrayal of Hebrew writing as legend, I affirm his statement of the unique Hebrew conception of the universe and its workings. Polemical theology is one way in which the biblical writers demonstrate that uniqueness. The purpose of polemical theology is to demonstrate the essential distinctions between Hebrew thought and ancient Near Eastern beliefs and practices.

With that definition in mind, let us examine some brief and straightforward examples of polemical theology at work in the Old Testament. The examples are divided into two categories: polemical expressions and polemical motifs. We begin with the most basic level of polemic, that is, the idiomatic parallel, and we will observe three instances of this type of polemic at work in the text.

Polemical Expressions

A STRONG HAND

Some common expressions found in ancient Egyptian texts to describe the power of Pharaoh over his foes are that the monarch had “a strong hand,” or “he possessed a strong arm,” or he was “the one who destroyed his enemies with his arm.” It is polemical and ironic that the author of the book of Exodus assigns the same features to Yahweh as he humiliates and destroys Pharaoh and Egypt (Ex. 3:19–20; 6:1; 7:4; 15:6, etc.).3 James Hoffmeier comments on this parallel, asking, “what better way for the Exodus traditions to describe God’s victory over Pharaoh, and as a result his superiority, than to use Hebrew derivations or counterparts to Egyptian expressions that symbolized Egyptian royal power?” 4

In one sense, the Hebrew writers are “guilty” of borrowing expressions and concepts from the surrounding cultures. The idioms mentioned above are characteristically used of Pharaoh in Egyptian writings throughout the history of that land. Yet the biblical writers employ such borrowing for the purpose of taunting. The Hebrew authors use polemic to call into question the power of Pharaoh, and to underscore the true might of Yahweh!

THUS SAY

An additional clear example of a parallel usage of idiomatic expression appears in Exodus 5.5 In that chapter both Yahweh and Pharaoh give mandates introduced by the idiom “Thus says . . .” (Ex. 5:1, 10). The Egyptians were well aware of the use of that expression to preface the very commands of a deity. Their own texts, such as the Book of the Dead, frequently introduced the will of the gods with the words “Thus says . . .” For example, the 175th chapter of the Book of the Dead concludes the speech of the god by saying, “Thus says Atum.” 6 The ironic use of this idiom by the biblical writer in Exodus 5 sets the stage for the ensuing confrontation between the gods of Egypt (including Pharaoh) and the God of the Hebrews. This parallel is a conscious criticism of Pharaonic sovereignty: only Yahweh is God, and only his word truly and always comes to pass.

THE HEAVENLY RIDER

Another important example of an idiomatic parallel occurs in Isaiah 19. Verses 1–15 of the chapter are an oracle by the prophet against the nation of Egypt. The opening verse draws the reader’s attention immediately because it focuses on Yahweh’s menacing arrival in Egypt:

Behold, the LORD is riding on a swift cloud

and comes to Egypt;

and the idols of Egypt will tremble at his presence,

and the heart of the Egyptians will melt within them.

The picture of Yahweh as one who rides on the clouds is not unique to Israelite culture (cf. Ps 104:3). Ugaritic literature, which dates to the fourteenth–twelfth centuries BC, uses the same epithet to describe the Canaanite storm-god Baal. It declares:

Seven years Baal will fail
Eight years the rider of the clouds, no dew, no rain.7

Given the poetic parallelism of the two lines, the attribute “rider of the clouds” is to be ascribed to the pagan god Baal.

How are we to understand the same epithet being used for two different gods, and the fact that the pagan reference appears centuries before the Hebrew citation? Some scholars argue that this is evidence that Yahweh somehow evolved from Baal, or that perhaps there is some type of syncretism at work here. In reality, it is more likely that the biblical author of Isaiah is making an implicit criticism of Baalism: Baal does not ride on the clouds; Yahweh does! Certainly that meaning would have been clear to the Israelites of the time, who were living in the land of Canaan and were quite knowledgeable of Canaanite culture.

The point of connection of these three polemical examples is comparative linguistics and particularly the parallel usages of idiomatic expressions. Many polemical parallels, however, go far beyond mere linguistic affinity. Numerous events and motifs of the Old Testament record can be seen and understood as polemics against ancient Near Eastern life and culture. At this time we will look at three examples of this larger polemical category.

Polemical Motifs

THE SERPENT CONFRONTATION

Exodus 7:8–13 relates the story of Moses and Aaron changing their staff into a serpent.8 This activity by the Hebrew leaders is an attack on Pharaoh and the Egyptians, and it strikes at the very heart of Egyptian belief. In the first place, on the front of Pharaoh’s crown was an enraged female serpent/cobra called a uraeus. The Egyptians believed this serpent was energized with divine potency and sovereignty. It was considered the very emblem of Pharaoh’s power; it symbolized his deification and majesty. “When Moses had Aaron fling the rod-snake before Pharaoh, he was directly assaulting that token of Pharaonic sovereignty—the scene was one of polemical taunting. When Aaron’s rod swallowed the staffs of the Egyptian magicians, Pharaonic deity and omnipotence were being denounced and rejected outright. . . . Yahweh alone was in control of the entire episode.” 9

Second, the casting down of the rod was a challenge to the power of Egyptian magic as described in many of Egypt’s mythological texts. Egyptian documents are loaded with examples of priests and magicians performing extraordinary feats, including changing inanimate objects into animals. The Westcar Papyrus, for example, tells the story of a lector-priest who makes a wax crocodile come to life by throwing it into a lake.10 Later, he bends down, picks up the crocodile, and it becomes wax again. In the narration of the historical incident of Exodus 7, the biblical author is perhaps subtly pointing to the fictional character of Egyptian mythological texts. Moses and Aaron truly performed what Egyptian myths merely imagined. Myth became fact.

Finally, the textual evidence from Egypt demonstrates that the Egyptians had great pride in their power to manipulate venomous creatures. The two Hebrew leaders thus humiliated and defeated the magicians in something that traditionally rendered glory to the Egyptians. As Hengstenberg remarks, “Moses was furnished with power to perform that which the Egyptian magicians most especially gloried in and by which they most of all supported their authority.” 11

DROUGHT

When the great Hebrew prophet Elijah makes his first appearance in Scripture, he is pictured confronting Ahab, the king of Israel. The prophet pronounces a curse upon Israel in the name of Yahweh, that “there shall be neither dew nor rain these years, except by my word” (1 Kings 17:1). Drought is the promised punishment for a covenant-breaking Israel (Deut. 11:16–17). Israel, under the leadership of Ahab and Jezebel, has become Baal-saturated. Baal worship predominates throughout the land. Paganism reigns in these dark times. Thus, the Lord brings judgment on the entire nation for its apostasy.

It is critical to note that the form of...