Drlica / Fong Antimicrobial Resistance and Implications for the 21st Century

1. Auflage 2007
ISBN: 978-0-387-72418-8
Verlag: Springer-Verlag
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: Adobe DRM (»Systemvoraussetzungen)

E-Book, Englisch, 408 Seiten

This comprehensive, up-to-date volume defines the issues and offers potential solutions to the challenges of antimicrobial resistance. The chapter authors are leading international experts on antimicrobial resistance among a variety of bacteria, viruses including HIV and herpes, parasites and fungi. The chapters explore the molecular mechanisms of drug resistance, the immunology and epidemiology of resistance strains, clinical implications and implications on research and lack thereof, and prevention and future directions.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Drlica, Karl

Fong, I.W.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Preface;6
2;Contents;7
3;Mechanisms of Resistance by Gram-Positive Bacteria ( Streptococci and Enterococci);12
3.1;1.1 Streptococcus Pneumoniae Resistance to Penicillin: Mechanism and Clinical Significance;12
3.1.1;1.1.1 Microbiologic Characteristics of S. pneumoniae;12
3.1.2;1.1.2 Historical Overview of Pneumococcal Antibiotic Resistance;13
3.1.3;1.1.3 Clinical and Microbiological Concepts of Antibiotic Resistance;14
3.1.4;1.1.4 Overview of Bacterial Resistance;15
3.1.5;1.1.5 Mechanisms of Resistance to Penicillin and Cephalosporins;16
3.1.6;1.1.6 Relationship Between Pneumococcal Serotypes and Penicillin- Resistance;19
3.1.7;1.1.7 Risk Factors for Infection by Penicillin-Resistant S. pneumoniae;19
3.1.8;1.1.8 The Clinical Consequences of Penicillin Resistance in Patients with Pneumonia;20
3.1.9;1.1.9 Combination Antimicrobial Therapy for Pneumococcal Pneumonia;24
3.2;1.2 Streptococcal Resistance to Macrolides, Tetracycline, Quinolones, and Clindamycin— Mechanisms and Implications;25
3.2.1;1.2.1 Macrolides and Related Antimicrobial Agents;25
3.2.2;1.2.2 Quinolones;28
3.2.3;1.2.3 Mechanisms of Resistance to Other Antimicrobials;34
3.2.4;1.2.4 Multidrug-Resistant S. pneumoniae;34
3.3;1.3 Streptococcal and Enterococcal Resistance to Streptogramin, Oxazolidinones, Vancomycin— Emerging Issues;35
3.3.1;1.3.1 Glycopeptides: Vancomycin;36
3.3.2;1.3.2 Lipopeptides: Daptomycin;39
3.3.3;1.3.3 Oxazolidinones: Linezolid;40
3.3.4;1.3.4 Streptogramins: Quinupristin–Dalfopristin;41
3.4;1.4 Future Directions;43
3.5;References;45
4;Emergence of MRSA in the Community;58
4.1;2.1 Introduction;58
4.2;2.2 Epidemiology and Mechanisms of Resistance in MRSA in the Community ;59
4.2.1;2.2.1 Epidemiology and Clinical Presentation of MRSA;59
4.2.2;2.2.2 Transmission of CA-MRSA;62
4.2.3;2.2.3 Microbiology and Mechanisms of Resistance;67
4.3;2.3 Considerations in Management of S. aureus Infection in the Community;71
4.3.1;2.3.1 Management of Severe or Invasive MRSA Infections;72
4.3.2;2.3.2 Management of MRSA Skin or Soft Tissue Infections;72
4.3.3;2.3.3 Strategies to Eliminate S. aureus Colonization;75
4.4;2.4 Prevention of MRSA in the Community;76
4.4.1;2.4.1 Public Health Officials;76
4.4.2;2.4.2 Medical Providers and Infection Control Practitioners;76
4.4.3;2.4.3 Patients and Members of the Community;77
4.5;2.5 Future Directions;78
4.6;References;79
5;Antimicrobial Resistance to Sexually Transmitted Infections;87
5.1;3.1 Introduction;87
5.2;3.2 Genital Herpes;87
5.3;3.3 Trichomonas vaginalis;89
5.4;3.4 Syphilis;90
5.5;3.5 Chlamydia;91
5.6;3.6 Gonorrhea;92
5.7;3.6.1 Mechanisms of Resistance;95
5.8;3.7 Haemophilus ducreyi (Chancroid);98
5.9;References;100
6;Resistance of Gram-Negative Bacilli to Antimicrobials;107
6.1;4.1 Background and Epidemiology of the Emerging Problem WorldWide with Multiresistant Gram- Negative Bacilli;107
6.2;4.2 Mechanisms of Resistance;108
6.2.1;4.2.1 New ß-Lactamases;108
6.2.2;4.2.2 Quinolones;116
6.2.3;4.2.3 Resistance to Aminoglycosides;127
6.2.4;4.2.4 Resistance to Tetracyclines;134
6.2.5;4.2.5 Efflux Mediated Resistance;137
6.3;4.3 Future Directions ;143
6.3.1;4.3.1 Preventive Measures;143
6.3.2;4.3.2 New Agents;145
6.4;4.4 Concluding Remarks;146
6.5;References;146
7;Mycobacterial Antimicrobial Resistance;170
7.1;5.1 Definitions and Causation;170
7.2;5.2 Global Epidemiology of Tuberculosis;170
7.2.1;5.2.1 Principal Conclusions of Report;171
7.2.2;5.2.2 Asia;172
7.2.3;5.2.3 Africa;177
7.2.4;5.2.4 The Americas;178
7.2.5;5.2.5 Europe;179
7.3;5.3 The Bacterium;181
7.3.1;5.3.1 Mycobacterium tuberculosis Complex;182
7.3.2;5.3.2 Environmental Mycobacteria;183
7.3.3;5.3.3 Mycobacterium leprae;183
7.4;5.4 Mechanisms of Development of Drug Resistance ;184
7.4.1;5.4.1 Introduction;184
7.4.2;5.4.2 Rifampicin Resistance;184
7.4.3;5.4.3 Isoniazid Resistance;185
7.4.4;5.4.4 Other Drug-Resistant Mechanisms;186
7.5;5.5 Laboratory Diagnosis;186
7.5.1;5.5.1 Culture on Solid Media;187
7.5.2;5.5.2 Automated Liquid-Based Culture;187
7.5.3;5.5.3 Phenotypic Methods;188
7.5.4;5.5.4 Molecular Methods;189
7.6;5.6 The Development of Drug Resistant Tuberculosis;190
7.7;5.7 Clinical Presentation of Drug-Resistant Tuberculosis;191
7.8;5.8 AIDS in the Presentation of MDR-TB;191
7.9;5.9 HIV and TB;191
7.10;5.10 MDR-TB Outbreaks;192
7.11;5.11 The Treatment of Multidrug Resistant Tuberculosis ;192
7.11.1;5.11.1 Introduction;192
7.11.2;5.11.2 Management of Non-MDR Resistance;194
7.11.3;5.11.3 Multi-drug-Resistant Tuberculosis;194
7.11.4;5.11.4 Outcomes in the Treatment of MDR-TB: The Place of Directly Observed Therapy ( DOT);198
7.11.5;5.11.5 Outcomes in Children;198
7.12;5.12 New Drugs in the Management of MDR-TB;199
7.13;5.13 Immunotherapy of Multidrug Resistant Pulmonary Tuberculosis;199
7.14;5.14 Summary of Management Plan of Multidrug Resistant Pulmonary Tuberculosis;200
7.15;5.15 Therapeutic Drug Monitoring in Anti-tuberculosis Chemotherapy;200
7.16;5.16 Environmental (Atypical) Mycobacteria;201
7.16.1;5.16.1 Introduction;201
7.16.2;5.16.2 Bacteriology and Pathology;202
7.16.3;5.16.3 Clinical Presentation;203
7.16.4;5.16.4 Chest Radiography and Diagnosis;203
7.16.5;5.16.5 Disseminated Disease;204
7.16.6;5.16.6 Clarithromycin and MAC in HIV Infection;205
7.17;References;206
8;Antimicrobial Resistance of Anaerobic Bacteria;215
8.1;6.1 Introduction;215
8.2;6.2 Anaerobic Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (AST);216
8.2.1;6.2.1 Methods;216
8.3;6.3 Antimicrobial Resistance among Anaerobes;221
8.3.1;6.3.1 Future Directions of Research;222
8.3.2;6.3.2 Mechanisms and Prevalence of Resistance;222
8.3.3;6.3.3 Antibiotic Resistance by Genus and Species;222
8.3.4;6.3.4 Resistance to ß-Lactam Antibiotics;226
8.3.5;6.3.5 Conclusion;232
8.4;References;232
9;Clinical Significance and Biological Basis of HIV Drug Resistance;238
9.1;7.1 Introduction;238
9.2;7.2 Generation of HIV-1 Drug Resistance;241
9.3;7.3 Inhibitors of Reverse Transcriptase;241
9.4;7.4 Protease Inhibitors;244
9.5;7.5 Entry Inhibitors;246
9.6;7.6 Antiretroviral Drug Resistance in Non-B Subtypes of HIV- 1 Group M;247
9.7;7.7 Transmission of HIV Drug-Resistance;248
9.8;7.8 Clinical Value of HIV Drug Resistance Testing;251
9.9;7.9 Future Direction;253
9.10;7.10 Conclusion;254
9.11;References;255
10;Resistance of Herpesviruses to Antiviral Agents;269
10.1;8.1 Antiviral Agents for Herpesvirus Infections;269
10.2;8.2 Human Cytomegalovirus Resistance ;271
10.2.1;8.2.1 Phenotypic and Genotypic Assays to Evaluate HCMV Drug Susceptibility;271
10.2.2;8.2.2 Clinical Significance, Incidence and Risk Factors for Drug- Resistant HCMV Infections;273
10.2.3;8.2.3 Role of HCMV UL97 and UL54 Mutations in Drug-Resistant Clinical Strains;276
10.2.4;8.2.4 Management of Infections Caused by Resistant HCMV Strains;278
10.3;8.3 Herpes Simplex Virus and Varicella-Zoster Virus Resistance ;279
10.3.1;8.3.1 Phenotypic and Genotypic Assays to Evaluate HSV and VZV Drug Susceptibility;279
10.3.2;8.3.2 Clinical Significance, Incidence, and Risk Factors for Drug- Resistant HSV and VZV Infections;281
10.3.3;8.3.3 Role of Viral TK and DNA Polymerase Mutations in Drug- Resistant Clinical Strains;282
10.3.4;8.3.4 Management of Infections Caused by Resistant HSV and VZV Strains;283
10.4;8.4 Conclusions and Future Directions;285
10.5;References;286
11;Hepatitis Virus Resistance;297
11.1;9.1 Introduction;297
11.2;9.2 Hepatitis B Virus Resistance;297
11.2.1;9.2.1 HBV Virological Characteristics;298
11.2.2;9.2.2 Current Treatment of Chronic HBV Infection;299
11.2.3;9.2.3 HBV Resistance to Specific Inhibitors;300
11.2.4;9.2.4 Assessment of HBV Resistance;305
11.2.5;9.2.5 Prevention of HBV Resistance;307
11.2.6;9.2.6 Management of HBV Resistance;309
11.3;9.3 Hepatitis C Virus Resistance;310
11.3.1;9.3.1 HCV Virological Characteristics;310
11.3.2;9.3.2 Current Treatment of Chronic HCV Infection;311
11.3.3;9.3.3 HCV Resistance to Interferon alpha-Ribavirin Therapy;312
11.3.4;9.3.4 HCV Resistance to Specific HCV Inhibitors;315
11.3.5;9.3.5 Prevention of HCV Resistance to Specific HCV Inhibitors;318
11.3.6;9.3.6 Management of HCV Treatment Failure;318
11.4;9.4 Conclusion;319
11.5;References;319
12;Resistance to Antifungal Agents;330
12.1;10.1 Introduction ;330
12.1.1;10.1.1 Incidence of Fungal Infections;330
12.1.2;10.1.2 Microbiological Resistance Versus Clinical Resistance;331
12.2;10.2 Mechanisms of Resistance ;331
12.2.1;10.2.1 Antifungal Drugs;331
12.2.2;10.2.2 Polyenes;331
12.2.3;10.2.3 Flucytosine (5-FC);336
12.2.4;10.2.4 Ergosterol Biosynthesis Inhibitors;337
12.2.5;10.2.5 Allylamines;344
12.2.6;10.2.6 ß-1,3 Glucan synthesis inhibitors;346
12.3;10.3 Clinical Implications ;348
12.3.1;10.3.1 Detecting In Vitro Resistance;348
12.3.2;10.3.2 MIC Interpretation;349
12.3.3;10.3.3 Limitations of In Vitro Susceptibility Tests;350
12.4;10.4 Antifungal Prophylaxis: A Breeding Ground For Resistance?;352
12.4.1;10.4.1 Vulvovaginal Candidiasis;353
12.4.2;10.4.2 Invasive Fungal Infection;353
12.5;10.5 Future Considerations and Newer Agents ;356
12.5.1;10.5.1 Echinocandins;356
12.5.2;10.5.2 Combination Therapy;356
12.5.3;10.5.3 Cispentacin;357
12.5.4;10.5.4 Sordarins;357
12.6;10.6 Conclusions;357
12.7;References;358
13;An Anti-mutant Approach for Antimicrobial Use;375
13.1;11.1 Introduction;375
13.2;11.2 Loss of Antimicrobial Susceptibility;376
13.3;11.3 Overview of Strategies for Limiting Antimicrobial Resistance;377
13.4;11.4 Mutant Selection Window ;379
13.4.1;11.4.1 Definition of the Selection Window;379
13.4.2;11.4.2 Selection Window with Eukaryotic Pathogens;381
13.4.3;11.4.3 Complex Situations;383
13.4.4;11.4.4 Estimating MPC;384
13.4.5;11.4.5 Estimating MPC from MIC?;385
13.5;11.5 Experimental Support for the Selection Window Hypothesis ;386
13.5.1;11.5.1 In Vitro Dynamic Models;386
13.5.2;11.5.2 Animal Models;388
13.5.3;11.5.3 Clinical Study;389
13.6;11.6 Pharmacokinetic/Pharmacodynamic Indices and MPC;390
13.7;11.7 Stepwise Accumulation of Resistance Mutations;390
13.8;11.8 Clinical Implications of the Mutant Selection Window Hypothesis;392
13.9;11.9 Assumptions and Limitations of the SelectionWindow;394
13.10;11.10 Concluding Remarks;395
13.11;References;396
14;Index;405