Extensive Air Showers

High Energy Phenomena and Astrophysical Aspects - A Tutorial, Reference Manual and Data Book
1. Auflage 2010
ISBN: 978-3-540-76941-5
Verlag: Springer-Verlag
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: Adobe DRM (»Systemvoraussetzungen)

E-Book, Englisch, 1118 Seiten

Extensive air showers are a very unique phenomenon. In the more than six decades since their discovery by Auger and collaborators we have learned a lot about these extremely energetic events and gained deep insight into high-energy phenomena, particle physics and astrophysics. In this Tutorial, Reference Manual and Data Book Peter K. F. Grieder provides the reader with a comprehensive view of the phenomenology and facts of the various types of interactions and cascades, theoretical background, experimental methods, data evaluation and interpretation and air shower simulation. He discusses astrophysical aspects of the primary radiation and addresses remaining puzzling questions that cannot yet be answered. They remain as a challenge for present and future research in the field. The book is split into two volumes. Volume I deals mainly with the basic theoretical framework of the processes that determine an air shower and ends with a summary of ways and means to extract information from air shower observations on the primary radiation. It also presents a compilation of data of our current knowledge of the high energy portion of the primary spectrum and composition. Volume II contains mainly compilations of data of experimental and theoretical nature as well as predictions from simulations of individual air shower constituents. Also included are chapters dedicated exclusively to special processes and detection methods. Extensive up-to-date reference lists appear at the end of each chapter. Researchers and students working in the field of cosmic ray detection and astroparticle physics will appreciate finding this book in their library.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Volume I;2
1.1;Preface;8
1.1.1;Readme;9
1.1.2;Acknowledgements;11
1.2;Contents;14
1.3;Part I;30
1.3.1;Introduction, Facts and Phenomenology;31
1.3.1.1;1.1 Hadron Initiated Air Showers;31
1.3.1.2;1.2 Gamma Ray and Electron Initiated Air Showers;45
1.3.1.3;1.3 Neutrino Initiated Air Showers;52
1.3.1.4;1.4 Dust Grain Hypothesis;55
1.3.1.5;References;57
1.3.2;Shower Detection Methods and Basic Event Reconstruction;61
1.3.2.1;2.1 Introduction;61
1.3.2.2;2.2 Particle Detector Arrays;62
1.3.2.3;2.3 Air Cherenkov Detector Arrays;66
1.3.2.4;2.4 Air Fluorescence Detectors;67
1.3.2.5;2.5 Radio Emission Detection;69
1.3.2.6;2.6 RADAR Ranging and Detection;70
1.3.2.7;2.7 Acoustic Detection;74
1.3.2.8;2.8 Hybrid Detector Systems and Coupled Experiments;76
1.3.2.9;2.9 Directly and Indirectly Accessible Shower Parameters;79
1.3.2.10;2.10 Basic Shower Reconstruction Procedure;80
1.3.2.11;2.11 Detector Response to Air Shower Particles and Transition Effects;89
1.3.2.12;References;100
1.3.3;Hadronic Interactions and Cascades;105
1.3.3.1;3.1 Introduction;105
1.3.3.2;3.2 Hadronic Cross Sections;109
1.3.3.3;3.3 Interaction Mean Free Path;116
1.3.3.4;3.4 Projectile and Target Fragmentation;117
1.3.3.5;3.5 Secondary Particle Multiplicity;123
1.3.3.6;3.6 Kinematic Aspects of Secondaries, Longitudinal and Transverse Momenta;130
1.3.3.7;3.7 Large Transverse Momenta of Secondaries, Energy Dependence;132
1.3.3.8;3.8 Leading Particle Effect, Elasticity and Inelasticity;134
1.3.3.9;3.9 Correlations Between Interaction Observables;141
1.3.3.10;3.10 Models of High Energy Interactions: I. Early Models;143
1.3.3.11;3.11 Models of High Energy Interactions: II. Modern Models;155
1.3.3.12;3.12 Hadron Cascades;161
1.3.3.13;References;167
1.3.4;Electromagnetic Interactions and Photon– Electron Cascades;175
1.3.4.1;4.1 Introduction;175
1.3.4.2;4.2 Definition of Frequently Used Terms;178
1.3.4.3;4.3 Electromagnetic Interactions Relevant for Cascade and Shower Development;183
1.3.4.4;4.4 Miscellaneous EM-Interactions of Lesser or No Relevance for Cascades;190
1.3.4.5;4.5 Processes Under Extreme Conditions;196
1.3.4.6;4.6 Photon–Electron Cascade Theory;202
1.3.4.7;4.7 Expressions for Practical Applications;224
1.3.4.8;References;228
1.3.5;Muon and Neutrino Interactions;232
1.3.5.1;5.1 Introduction;232
1.3.5.2;5.2 Muons;233
1.3.5.3;5.3 Neutrinos;253
1.3.5.4;References;260
1.3.6;Longitudinal Development and Equal Intensity Distributions;264
1.3.6.1;6.1 Introduction;264
1.3.6.2;6.2 Physical Processes and Concepts;265
1.3.6.3;6.3 Attenuation of Shower Rate and Absorption of Shower Particles;274
1.3.6.4;6.4 Altitude and Zenith Angle Dependence;279
1.3.6.5;6.5 Environmental Effects;282
1.3.6.6;6.6 Data on Attenuation and Absorption, Altitude and Zenith Angle Dependence, Environmental Effects;285
1.3.6.7;6.7 Equal Intensity Distributions;311
1.3.6.8;References;324
1.3.7;Depth of Shower Maximum and Elongation Rate;330
1.3.7.1;7.1 Introduction;330
1.3.7.2;7.2 Methods of Xmax Determination;331
1.3.7.3;7.3 Air Cherenkov Signatures of Xmax;332
1.3.7.4;7.4 Particle Signatures of Xmax;353
1.3.7.5;7.5 Hybrid Signatures of Xmax;360
1.3.7.6;7.6 Air Fluorescence Tracking of Shower Development and Xmax;361
1.3.7.7;7.7 Atmospheric Effects;363
1.3.7.8;7.8 Elongation and Elongation Rate;365
1.3.7.9;7.9 Data Summary of Xmax, Its Fluctuations, s(Xmax), and the Elongation Rate;367
1.3.7.10;7.10 Mathematical Expressions and Fits;380
1.3.7.11;References;381
1.3.8;Lateral Structure of Showers and Energy Flow;386
1.3.8.1;8.1 Introduction;386
1.3.8.2;8.2 Shower Development and Particle Spread;387
1.3.8.3;8.3 Radial Dependence of Particle Composition and Particle Energy;390
1.3.8.4;8.4 Energy Release of Particles in the Atmosphere;393
1.3.8.5;8.5 Density Measurements and Detector Response, Zenith Angle Dependence;394
1.3.8.6;8.6 Lateral Distribution of Shower Particles;400
1.3.8.7;8.7 Azimuthal Asymmetries of Particle Distribution;407
1.3.8.8;8.8 Geomagnetic Effects;410
1.3.8.9;8.9 Lateral Distribution of Energy Flow;412
1.3.8.10;8.10 Array Specific Lateral Particle Distribution Functions;414
1.3.8.11;8.11 Effects of Shower Front Structure, Time Dispersion and Delayed Particles on Density Measurements;419
1.3.8.12;8.12 Lateral Distribution of Air Cherenkov Photons;419
1.3.8.13;8.13 Mathematical Expressions and Fits;420
1.3.8.14;References;422
1.3.9;Temporal Structure of Showers and Front Curvature;425
1.3.9.1;9.1 Introduction;425
1.3.9.2;9.2 Basic Definitions of Timing Observables;427
1.3.9.3;9.3 Early Work, Basic Results and Front Curvature;428
1.3.9.4;9.4 Recent ExperimentalWork and Simulations;434
1.3.9.5;9.5 Special Analysis Methods;438
1.3.9.6;9.6 Time Dispersion and Delayed Particle Effects on Density Measurements;439
1.3.9.7;References;443
1.3.10;Derived Shower and Interaction Parameters, Refined Event Reconstruction;445
1.3.10.1;10.1 Introduction;445
1.3.10.2;10.2 Primary Energy Estimation;448
1.3.10.3;10.3 Primary Mass Estimation;467
1.3.10.4;10.4 Shower Age;485
1.3.10.5;10.5 Additional and Hidden Parameters;496
1.3.10.6;References;501
1.3.11;Primary Cosmic Radiation and Astrophysical Aspects;504
1.3.11.1;11.1 Introduction;504
1.3.11.2;11.2 Nature of the Primary Radiation;505
1.3.11.3;11.3 Low Energy Primary Radiation;507
1.3.11.4;11.4 Gamma Radiation;516
1.3.11.5;11.5 Established and Predicted Neutrino Spectra;521
1.3.11.6;11.6 High Energy All-Particle Primary Spectrum;527
1.3.11.7;11.7 High Energy Primary Composition;553
1.3.11.8;11.8 Gamma Ray Initiated Showers;568
1.3.11.9;11.9 Arrival Direction and Anisotropy;576
1.3.11.10;11.10 Time Variation of Shower Intensity;587
1.3.11.11;11.11 Origin and Propagation;593
1.3.11.12;References;602
1.4;Index;614
2;Volume II;636
2.1;Preface;642
2.1.1;Readme;643
2.1.2;Acknowledgements;645
2.2;Contents;648
2.3;Part II;662
2.3.1;Common Shower Properties, Observables and Data;663
2.3.1.1;12.1 General Comments;663
2.3.1.2;12.2 Shower Size or Number Spectrum;664
2.3.1.3;12.3 Muon Size or Number Spectra;688
2.3.1.4;12.4 Shower Density Spectra;696
2.3.1.5;12.5 Density Spectra at Fixed Core Distance, Energy Loss Spectra of Showers;712
2.3.1.6;References;728
2.3.2;Hadrons;733
2.3.2.1;13.1 Introduction;733
2.3.2.2;13.2 Lateral Distribution and Structure Function;738
2.3.2.3;13.3 Energy Spectra and Related Data;749
2.3.2.4;13.4 Temporal Properties;757
2.3.2.5;13.5 Charge to Neutral Ratio;761
2.3.2.6;13.6 Hadron Content and Composition;765
2.3.2.7;13.7 Miscellaneous Topics;773
2.3.2.8;References;785
2.3.3;Muons;790
2.3.3.1;14.1 Introduction;790
2.3.3.2;14.2 Lateral Structure Functions and Density Distributions;792
2.3.3.3;14.3 Energy and Momentum Spectra;816
2.3.3.4;14.4 Temporal Properties and Muon Front Curvature;823
2.3.3.5;14.5 Charge Ratio and Geomagnetic Charge Separation;828
2.3.3.6;14.6 Height of Origin, Core Angle Distribution and (Eµ · rµ) Product;832
2.3.3.7;14.7 Multi-Muon Events and Muon Families;839
2.3.3.8;14.8 Muon Fluctuations;842
2.3.3.9;14.9 Genetics of Muons;843
2.3.3.10;References;847
2.3.4;Electrons and Photons;852
2.3.4.1;15.1 Introduction;852
2.3.4.2;15.2 Lateral Distribution Functions;855
2.3.4.3;15.3 Energy Spectra, Energy Flow and Related Data;871
2.3.4.4;15.4 Photon–Electron and Charge Ratio, Geomagnetic Effects;877
2.3.4.5;15.5 Temporal Properties;880
2.3.4.6;References;881
2.3.5;Atmospheric Cherenkov Radiation;884
2.3.5.1;16.1 Introduction;884
2.3.5.2;16.2 Phenomenology and Theory of Single Particle Cherenkov Radiation;886
2.3.5.3;16.3 Phenomenology and Theory of Cherenkov Radiation in Air Showers;891
2.3.5.4;16.4 Gamma Ray Initiated Showers and High Energy Gamma Ray Astronomy;906
2.3.5.5;16.5 Optical Background, Atmospheric Light Scattering, Absorption and Attenuation;911
2.3.5.6;16.6 Experimental Data and Interpretation;913
2.3.5.7;References;923
2.3.6;Atmospheric Fluorescence;928
2.3.6.1;17.1 Introduction;928
2.3.6.2;17.2 Fluorescence and Its Detection in E.A.S.;931
2.3.6.3;17.3 Optical Background, Atmospheric Scattering and Absorption;941
2.3.6.4;17.4 Shower Detection and Event Reconstruction;949
2.3.6.5;17.5 Measurements and Data;959
2.3.6.6;References;959
2.3.7;Radio Emission and Detection;962
2.3.7.1;18.1 Introduction;962
2.3.7.2;18.2 Radio Burst Generation Processes;963
2.3.7.3;18.3 Early Work;964
2.3.7.4;18.4 Theoretical Considerations and Theories of Radio Emission;966
2.3.7.5;18.5 Experimental Data and Phenomenology;977
2.3.7.6;18.6 RecentWork;985
2.3.7.7;18.7 Concluding Comments and Outlook;992
2.3.7.8;References;994
2.3.8;Correlations and Miscellaneous Topics;998
2.3.8.1;19.1 Introduction;998
2.3.8.2;19.2 Electron-Muon Correlations;999
2.3.8.3;19.3 Electron-Hadron and Muon-Hadron Correlations;1006
2.3.8.4;19.4 Miscellaneous Correlations;1015
2.3.8.5;19.5 Miscellaneous Topics;1024
2.3.8.6;References;1033
2.3.9;Air Shower Simulations;1037
2.3.9.1;20.1 Introduction;1037
2.3.9.2;20.2 Monte Carlo Methods;1039
2.3.9.3;20.3 Energy Splitting, Thinning and Hybrid Methods;1052
2.3.9.4;References;1054
2.3.10;Definitions and Relations;1056
2.3.10.1;21.1 General Comments;1056
2.3.10.2;21.2 Definitions of Terms and Quantities;1057
2.3.10.3;References;1080
2.3.11;Experimental Installations;1082
2.3.11.1;A.1 EAS Arrays and Cosmic Ray Ground Facilities;1082
2.3.11.2;A.2 Cosmic Ray Underground Installations of Past and Present;1111
2.3.11.3;References;1114
2.3.12;Miscellaneous Relations, Tables, Lists and Constants;1117
2.3.12.1;B.1 Electromagnetic Interaction Related Constants and Parameters;1117
2.3.12.2;B.2 Bethe-Bloch Ionization Loss Formula;1118
2.3.12.3;B.3 The Atmosphere;1119
2.3.12.4;B.4 Chapman Function;1127
2.3.12.5;B.5 Gross Transformation;1129
2.3.12.6;B.6 Energy, Particle, Photon and Magnetic Field Densities in Space;1129
2.3.12.7;B.7 Data on Cherenkov Radiation;1130
2.3.12.8;References;1131
2.3.13;List of Symbols;1133
2.3.14;Abbreviations and Acronyms;1136
2.3.15;List of Cosmic Ray Conferences;1138
2.4;Index;1139