Finkl / Makowski Remote Sensing and Modeling

Advances in Coastal and Marine Resources
1. Auflage 2014
ISBN: 978-3-319-06326-3
Verlag: Springer International Publishing
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, Band 9, 514 Seiten

Reihe: Coastal Research Library

This book is geared for advanced level research in the general subject area of remote sensing and modeling as they apply to the coastal marine environment. The various chapters focus on the latest scientific and technical advances in the service of better understanding coastal marine environments for their care, conservation and management. Chapters specifically deal with advances in remote sensing coastal classifications, environmental monitoring, digital ocean technological advances, geophysical methods, geoacoustics, X-band radar, risk assessment models, GIS applications, real-time modeling systems, and spatial modeling. Readers will find this book useful because it summarizes applications of new research methods in one of the world's most dynamic and complicated environments. Chapters in this book will be of interest to specialists in the coastal marine environment who deals with aspects of environmental monitoring and assessment via remote sensing techniques and numerical modeling.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Finkl, Charles W.

Makowski, Christopher

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Preface;6
2;Contents;12
3;Contributors;16
4;Part I: Remote Sensing, Mapping and Survey of Coastal Biophysical Environments;22
4.1;Chapter 1: Remote Sensing of Coastal Ecosystems and Environments;23
4.1.1;1.1 Introduction;23
4.1.2;1.2 Wetland Mapping;24
4.1.3;1.3 Hyperspectral Remote Sensing of Wetlands;27
4.1.4;1.4 Wetland Applications of Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR);28
4.1.5;1.5 Wetland Change Detection;29
4.1.6;1.6 Submerged Aquatic Vegetation (SAV);31
4.1.7;1.7 Beach Profiling and Shoreline Change Detection;34
4.1.8;1.8 Bathymetry;37
4.1.9;1.9 Summary and Conclusions;41
4.1.10;References;42
4.2;Chapter 2: Advanced Techniques for Mapping Biophysical Environments on Carbonate Banks Using Laser Airborne Depth Sounding (LA...;51
4.2.1;2.1 Introduction;52
4.2.1.1;2.1.1 Remote Sensing of Seafloor Features;52
4.2.1.1.1;2.1.1.1 Three-Dimensional Hachure Maps;52
4.2.1.1.2;2.1.1.2 Coastal Aerial Photography;54
4.2.1.1.3;2.1.1.3 Airborne Laser Imagery (LIDAR and LADS);55
4.2.1.1.4;2.1.1.4 Satellite Imagery (IKONOS);56
4.2.2;2.2 Incorporating Classification Schemes with Advanced Remote Sensing Images;56
4.2.2.1;2.2.1 Development of a Geomorphological Typology Based on LADS Imagery;56
4.2.2.2;2.2.2 Geomorphological Symbolization;60
4.2.2.2.1;2.2.2.1 Color Tints and Shades;61
4.2.2.2.2;2.2.2.2 Symbols, Signs, and Ciphers;62
4.2.2.2.3;2.2.2.3 Legend Patterns;62
4.2.2.3;2.2.3 Interpretation and Classification of IKONOS Imagery;62
4.2.3;2.3 Remote Sensing of Carbonate Banks in Southern Florida;67
4.2.4;2.4 Examples of Seafloor Mapping on Carbonate Banks;68
4.2.4.1;2.4.1 LADS Survey of Carbonate Shelf;68
4.2.4.2;2.4.2 IKONOS Survey of the Marquesas;69
4.2.5;2.5 Discussion;75
4.2.5.1;2.5.1 Pros and Cons Associated with High Density Airborne Laser Bathymetry (ALB) Data;76
4.2.5.2;2.5.2 Pros and Cons Associated with Satellite Multispectral Data;76
4.2.6;2.6 Conclusions;78
4.2.7;References;79
4.3;Chapter 3: Terrestrial Laser Scanner Surveying in Coastal Settings;84
4.3.1;3.1 Introduction;85
4.3.2;3.2 The TLS Instrument;85
4.3.3;3.3 Field Surveys and Scanner Setup;86
4.3.4;3.4 Data Merging and Modeling;90
4.3.5;3.5 Applications of TLS in Coastal Settings;92
4.3.6;3.6 Conclusions;93
4.3.7;References;94
4.4;Chapter 4: Advances in Applied Remote Sensing to Coastal Environments Using Free Satellite Imagery;96
4.4.1;4.1 Introduction;96
4.4.2;4.2 Remote Sensors: An Overview;97
4.4.2.1;4.2.1 The Landsat Program;98
4.4.3;4.3 The Landsat Operational History;103
4.4.4;4.4 The New Landsat 8;105
4.4.5;4.5 Application Examples;105
4.4.5.1;4.5.1 Shoreline Detection and Extraction;105
4.4.5.1.1;4.5.1.1 Methodology;107
4.4.5.1.2;4.5.1.2 Results;108
4.4.5.2;4.5.2 Long-Term Evolution of an Ephemeral Ebb Delta Island;109
4.4.5.2.1;4.5.2.1 Methodology;110
4.4.5.2.2;4.5.2.2 Results;110
4.4.5.3;4.5.3 Seasonal Evolution of a Transient Beach;112
4.4.5.3.1;4.5.3.1 Methodology;112
4.4.5.3.2;4.5.3.2 Results;113
4.4.5.4;4.5.4 Bathymetric Data Retrieval;115
4.4.5.4.1;4.5.4.1 Methodology;116
4.4.5.4.2;4.5.4.2 Results;116
4.4.6;4.6 Conclusion;119
4.4.7;References;119
4.5;Chapter 5: Remote Sensing and Modeling of Coral Reef Resilience;122
4.5.1;5.1 Introduction;123
4.5.2;5.2 Coral Reef Ecosystem Resilience and Indicators of Resilience;124
4.5.3;5.3 What Remote Sensing Can Map on Coral Reefs;125
4.5.3.1;5.3.1 Mapping the Seafloor;127
4.5.3.2;5.3.2 Mapping the Water Column;130
4.5.3.3;5.3.3 Mapping and Modeling the Seascape Context;131
4.5.3.4;5.3.4 Mapping Threats and Stressors;132
4.5.4;5.4 Direct Monitoring;132
4.5.5;5.5 Spatial Distribution Modeling;133
4.5.6;5.6 Case Studies;134
4.5.6.1;5.6.1 High-Resolution Mapping of Selected Resilience Indicators in Fiji;134
4.5.6.2;5.6.2 High-Resolution Mapping of a Coral Reef Resilience Index in Saudi Arabia;136
4.5.6.3;5.6.3 Mapping Exposure of Coral Reefs to Climate-Driven Environmental Stress;138
4.5.7;5.7 Spatially Explicit Resilience Modeling;141
4.5.8;5.8 Management Applications;143
4.5.9;5.9 Conclusion;145
4.5.10;References;145
4.6;Chapter 6: An Assessment of Physiographic Habitats, Geomorphology and Evolution of Chilika Lagoon (Odisha, India) Using Geospa...;154
4.6.1;6.1 Introduction;155
4.6.2;6.2 Methods of Study;156
4.6.3;6.3 Geomorphology of Chilika Lagoon;157
4.6.4;6.4 Historical Environment of Chilika Lagoon System;170
4.6.5;6.5 Wetland Types (Chilika Lagoon System);170
4.6.6;6.6 Chilika Lagoon Fringe Wetland Types at the Physiographic Settings;172
4.6.7;6.7 Storm Generated Geomorphic Changes;174
4.6.8;6.8 Conclusions;174
4.6.9;References;179
4.7;Chapter 7: Foreshore Applications of X-band Radar;180
4.7.1;7.1 Introduction;181
4.7.1.1;7.1.1 Requirements of Nearshore Monitoring System;181
4.7.1.2;7.1.2 Merits and Demerits Between Different Sensors;182
4.7.1.3;7.1.3 Basics of Radar Remote Sensing;184
4.7.1.4;7.1.4 Swash Motion Studies;185
4.7.1.5;7.1.5 Objectives of the Chapter;186
4.7.2;7.2 Setup of the Study;187
4.7.2.1;7.2.1 Research Pier HORS;187
4.7.2.2;7.2.2 Radar System and Echo Image;188
4.7.2.3;7.2.3 Meteorological and Sea State Conditions;189
4.7.2.4;7.2.4 Spectral Characteristics of Incident Wave Fields;191
4.7.3;7.3 Implication of Averaged Images;193
4.7.3.1;7.3.1 Inter-tidal Bathymetry;193
4.7.3.2;7.3.2 Foreshore Slope;196
4.7.4;7.4 Swash Front Analyses;197
4.7.4.1;7.4.1 Digitization of Swash Motion;197
4.7.4.2;7.4.2 Validation of Swash Front;198
4.7.4.3;7.4.3 Shoreline Position;199
4.7.5;7.5 Longshore Structure of Wave Run-up;201
4.7.5.1;7.5.1 Run-up Height;201
4.7.5.2;7.5.2 Infra-gravity Run-Up Distribution;202
4.7.5.3;7.5.3 Spectra of Water Front Elevation;203
4.7.5.4;7.5.4 Dependence of Run-Up Height on Slope;205
4.7.5.5;7.5.5 Propagation of Low Frequency Motion;206
4.7.6;7.6 Concluding Remarks;208
4.7.7;References;209
5;Part II: Advances in the Study and Interpretation of Coastal Oceans, Estuaries, Sea-Level Variation, and Water Quality;211
5.1;Chapter 8: Digital Ocean Technological Advances;212
5.1.1;8.1 Digital Earth and Digital Ocean;213
5.1.2;8.2 Technological Advances for Digital Ocean;214
5.1.2.1;8.2.1 Introduction to Digital Ocean Data Sources;214
5.1.2.2;8.2.2 The Three-Dimensional Ocean Data Integration Platform;216
5.1.2.3;8.2.3 The Dynamic Tide Data Visualization;219
5.1.2.4;8.2.4 Remote Sensing Information Products Integration and Sharing;219
5.1.2.5;8.2.5 Computational Ocean Model Data Integration and Service;220
5.1.2.6;8.2.6 Spatio-temporal Model of Marine Disasters;222
5.1.3;8.3 Digital Ocean System Initial Architecture;223
5.1.3.1;8.3.1 Data Acquire Layer;223
5.1.3.2;8.3.2 Standard Data Layer;225
5.1.3.3;8.3.3 Data Service Interface Layer;225
5.1.3.4;8.3.4 Function Layer;225
5.1.3.5;8.3.5 Application Layer;226
5.1.4;8.4 A Case Study of Digital Ocean;226
5.1.4.1;8.4.1 A Digital Ocean Prototype System;226
5.1.4.2;8.4.2 DE in Support of an Online Oceanic Educational Public Service and Popularization System;227
5.1.4.3;8.4.3 The Evaluation of Initial DO Application;227
5.1.5;8.5 Future Work with Digital Ocean;228
5.1.5.1;8.5.1 Aiding Integrative Oceanic Scientific Research;228
5.1.5.2;8.5.2 Constructing Regional DO Systems;228
5.1.5.3;8.5.3 Studying Multiple Spatio-temporal Scales of Ocean Factors;229
5.1.5.4;8.5.4 Studying the Relationship Between Ocean Elements at Different Times;229
5.1.5.5;8.5.5 Studying the Spatial Relationship Between Different Ocean Elements or Components;229
5.1.5.6;8.5.6 Studying the Architecture of the DO;229
5.1.5.7;8.5.7 Studying the Coastal River Basin Non-point Pollution Landscape Source and Assemblage Pattern Remote Sensing Parsing;230
5.1.6;References;230
5.2;Chapter 9: A New Statistical-Empirical Hybrid Based Model to Estimate Seasonal Sea-Level Variation in the Gulf of Paria from R...;232
5.2.1;9.1 Introduction;233
5.2.1.1;9.1.1 Global Freshwater Influence;234
5.2.1.2;9.1.2 Study Area;235
5.2.1.3;9.1.3 Numerical Modelling;237
5.2.2;9.2 Data and Method;238
5.2.2.1;9.2.1 Data;238
5.2.2.2;9.2.2 Mesh Generation and Boundary Conditions;240
5.2.2.3;9.2.3 Data Treatment Method;241
5.2.2.4;9.2.4 Model Execution Procedures;242
5.2.2.5;9.2.5 Calibration and Validation;243
5.2.2.6;9.2.6 Development of the Statistical Model;244
5.2.3;9.3 Results and Analysis;244
5.2.3.1;9.3.1 Validation of Modelled Water Levels;244
5.2.3.2;9.3.2 Statistical Water Level Estimates;246
5.2.4;9.4 Discussion;248
5.2.4.1;9.4.1 Freshwater Effects;248
5.2.4.2;9.4.2 Sources of Error;249
5.2.4.3;9.4.3 Significance of Results;250
5.2.5;9.5 Conclusion;251
5.2.6;References;251
5.3;Chapter 10: Advances in Modeling of Water Quality in Estuaries;254
5.3.1;10.1 Introduction;254
5.3.1.1;10.1.1 MOHID Water Modeling System;256
5.3.1.1.1;10.1.1.1 Model Equations;257
5.3.1.1.2;10.1.1.2 Water Processes;257
5.3.1.1.3;10.1.1.3 Horizontal Geometry;259
5.3.1.1.4;10.1.1.4 Vertical Coordinates;260
5.3.1.1.5;10.1.1.5 Eulerian and Lagrangian Approaches;260
5.3.2;10.2 Advanced Applications with MOHID;261
5.3.2.1;10.2.1 Downscaling: From the Large Scale to the Local Scale;261
5.3.2.1.1;10.2.1.1 Automatic Running Tool;263
5.3.2.2;10.2.2 The Tagus Operational Model;263
5.3.2.2.1;10.2.2.1 Model Validation;268
5.3.2.3;10.2.3 Bathing Water Quality;270
5.3.2.3.1;10.2.3.1 Fecal Decay Model;272
5.3.2.3.2;10.2.3.2 Bathing Water Quality Assessment;272
5.3.2.4;10.2.4 Residence Time of Water;275
5.3.2.4.1;10.2.4.1 Residence Time of Water in the Mondego Estuary;276
5.3.2.5;10.2.5 Nutrient Exchanges Between Estuaries and the Ocean;278
5.3.2.6;10.2.6 Seaweed Modeling;282
5.3.2.7;10.2.7 The Role of Complex Biogeochemical Algorithms in Estuarine Modeling;286
5.3.2.7.1;10.2.7.1 Nutrient Availability;286
5.3.2.7.2;10.2.7.2 Light Conditions;288
5.3.2.7.3;10.2.7.3 Relevant Ecological Groups;288
5.3.3;10.3 Conclusions;290
5.3.4;References;291
5.4;Chapter 11: Advances in Video Monitoring of the Beach and Nearshore: The Long-Term Perspective;294
5.4.1;11.1 Introduction;295
5.4.2;11.2 Pluriannual Video Monitoring Programs;296
5.4.3;11.3 Case Study;297
5.4.3.1;11.3.1 Study Site;298
5.4.3.2;11.3.2 Methods;299
5.4.3.2.1;11.3.2.1 Video Monitoring;299
5.4.3.2.2;11.3.2.2 Beach Volume;300
5.4.3.2.2.1;Model Validation;302
5.4.3.2.3;11.3.2.3 Wave Forcing;303
5.4.3.3;11.3.3 Results;303
5.4.3.3.1;11.3.3.1 Wave Forcing;303
5.4.3.3.2;11.3.3.2 Beach Morphodynamics;304
5.4.4;11.4 Conclusions;309
5.4.5;References;310
5.5;Chapter 12: Application of Advanced Remote Sensing Techniques to Improve Modeling Estuary Water Quality;312
5.5.1;12.1 Background and Introduction;313
5.5.2;12.2 Case Study Site: Lake Pontchartrain;315
5.5.3;12.3 Description of Numerical Model Used (CCHE2D);317
5.5.4;12.4 Satellite Data Used;318
5.5.5;12.5 Modeling Sediment Transport;319
5.5.6;12.6 Modeling Salinity Distribution;322
5.5.7;12.7 Prediction of Algal Bloom;324
5.5.8;12.8 Discussion, Conclusions and Future Research;327
5.5.9;References;328
6;Part III: Advances in Coastal Modeling Using Field Data, Remote Sensing, GIS, and Numerical Simulations;331
6.1;Chapter 13: Developments in Salt Marsh Topography Analysis Using Airborne Infrared Photography;332
6.1.1;13.1 Introduction;333
6.1.2;13.2 Study Area;334
6.1.3;13.3 Method;335
6.1.3.1;13.3.1 Waterline Method/Construction of the DEM;335
6.1.3.1.1;13.3.1.1 Aerial Survey;335
6.1.3.1.2;13.3.1.2 Image Processing;336
6.1.3.1.3;13.3.1.3 DEM Construction;337
6.1.3.2;13.3.2 Accuracy Assessment;337
6.1.4;13.4 Results;338
6.1.5;13.5 Discussion;341
6.1.5.1;13.5.1 Duplin´s Intertidal Marsh Topography and Flooding Patterns;341
6.1.5.2;13.5.2 Duplin´s DEM Vertical Accuracy;341
6.1.5.3;13.5.3 Applications of the Methodology;341
6.1.5.4;13.5.4 Strengths, Limitations, and Further Potential of the Methodology;342
6.1.6;13.6 Conclusions;344
6.1.7;References;344
6.2;Chapter 14: Examining Material Transport in Dynamic Coastal Environments: An Integrated Approach Using Field Data, Remote Sens...;347
6.2.1;14.1 Introduction;348
6.2.2;14.2 Study Site: The Albemarle-Pamlico Estuarine System, North Carolina USA;350
6.2.3;14.3 An Integrated Approach to Examining the APES;352
6.2.4;14.4 Field Sampling and Measurements;352
6.2.5;14.5 Laboratory Measurements and Analysis;353
6.2.6;14.6 Example Field Results;356
6.2.7;14.7 Remote Sensing;360
6.2.8;14.8 Example Remote Sensing Results;362
6.2.9;14.9 Modeling;368
6.2.10;14.10 Discussion;371
6.2.11;References;374
6.3;Chapter 15: Simulation Management Systems Developed by the Northern Gulf Coastal Hazards Collaboratory (NG-CHC): An Overview o...;379
6.3.1;15.1 Introduction;381
6.3.2;15.2 Simulation Management Systems;384
6.3.3;15.3 Geoinformatics;391
6.3.4;15.4 Collaborative Environment;393
6.3.4.1;15.4.1 Cybertools of NG-CHC;393
6.3.4.2;15.4.2 NG-CHC Portal;396
6.3.5;15.5 Collaboratory Experiments;398
6.3.5.1;15.5.1 River Management and Ecosystem Restoration;398
6.3.5.2;15.5.2 Mobile Bay Experiment: Processes from Catchment to the Coast;400
6.3.5.3;15.5.3 Forecasting Hurricane Storm Surge;402
6.3.6;15.6 Education and Outreach;403
6.3.7;References;406
6.4;Chapter 16: Advancement of Technology for Detecting Shoreline Changes in East Coast of India and Comparison with Prototype Beh...;409
6.4.1;16.1 Introduction;409
6.4.2;16.2 Development of Port at Ennore;411
6.4.3;16.3 Site Conditions;411
6.4.4;16.4 Transformation of Waves;412
6.4.5;16.5 Simulation of Littoral Drift and Shoreline Changes;413
6.4.5.1;16.5.1 Littoral Drift Distribution;414
6.4.5.2;16.5.2 Shoreline Changes;414
6.4.6;16.6 Shoreline Changes by Image Processing;415
6.4.7;16.7 Comparison of Shoreline Changes Obtained by Mathematical Model and Image Processing;416
6.4.8;16.8 Conclusion;417
6.4.9;References;417
6.5;Chapter 17: Advances in Remote Sensing of Coastal Wetlands: LiDAR, SAR, and Object-Oriented Case Studies from North Carolina;418
6.5.1;17.1 Introduction;419
6.5.1.1;17.1.1 Coastal Wetland Biomass and Topography;419
6.5.1.2;17.1.2 SAR and LiDAR Data;420
6.5.1.3;17.1.3 Fine Spatial Resolution and Object-Based Image Analysis;421
6.5.1.4;17.1.4 Rapid Coastal Response;423
6.5.2;17.2 Coastal Ecosystem Classification and Change;424
6.5.2.1;17.2.1 Wetland Hydrogeomorphic Classification;424
6.5.2.2;17.2.2 Salt Marsh Zonation and Classification;425
6.5.2.3;17.2.3 Invasive Phragmites;426
6.5.3;17.3 Case Studies;426
6.5.3.1;17.3.1 Case Study: Multi-sensor and Multi-date SAR for Emergent Marsh Mapping in Cedar Island NWR;426
6.5.3.2;17.3.2 Case Study: OBIA for Transitional Marshes and Phragmites in Spencer Creek, Alligator River NWR;428
6.5.3.3;17.3.3 Barrier Island Vegetation Mapping with OBIA Techniques, Rachel Carson Coastal Reserve;432
6.5.3.4;17.3.4 Case Study Synthesis;435
6.5.4;17.4 Conclusions;437
6.5.5;References;437
7;Part IV: Advances in the Management of Coastal Resources Using Remote Sensing Data and GIS;442
7.1;Chapter 18: Numerical Modelling and Satellite Remote Sensing as Tools for Research and Management of Marine Fishery Resources;443
7.1.1;18.1 Introduction;443
7.1.2;18.2 Numerical Models and Their Potential Application to Marine Fish and Invertebrate Larval Transport;444
7.1.2.1;18.2.1 Fish Larval Transport Modelling as an Example of Bio-physical Processes;445
7.1.2.2;18.2.2 Modelling Larval Transport and Settling Areas in Case of Bio-fouling Organisms from Ballast Waters;446
7.1.3;18.3 Geo-physical Datasets from SRS in the Context of Marine Fisheries Research and Management;449
7.1.3.1;18.3.1 SRS Chlorophyll Data Providing Cues on Fish Stock Variability;449
7.1.3.2;18.3.2 Reef Health Advisories Using SRS Derived SST;452
7.1.3.3;18.3.3 SRS Data for Cyclone Tracks Creating Productive Fishing Grounds;453
7.1.3.4;18.3.4 Demarcation of Ecological Provinces in Support of an Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries Management;453
7.1.4;18.4 Coupling Modelled and SRS Data for Effective Fishery Management;454
7.1.4.1;18.4.1 Trophic Modelling Using SRS Data as an Ecosystem Approach to Fisheries Management;454
7.1.4.2;18.4.2 Generating Potential Fishing Zones (PFZ) and Their Dissemination Along with Ocean State Forecasts (OSF);455
7.1.4.3;18.4.3 Detection of Meso-scale Features Such as Eddies and Fronts That May Indicate Productive Fishing Grounds;455
7.1.4.4;18.4.4 Forecasting Cyclones and Ocean State to Reduce Impacts on Coastal Fisher Folk and Resources;457
7.1.4.5;18.4.5 Estimation of Potential Fishery Resources of an Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) for Fishing Fleet Management;459
7.1.5;18.5 Overview;459
7.1.6;References;460
7.2;Chapter 19: Identifying Suitable Sites of Shrimp Culture in Southwest Bangladesh Using GIS and Remote Sensing Data;465
7.2.1;19.1 Introduction;466
7.2.2;19.2 Materials and Methods;469
7.2.3;19.3 Results and Discussion;470
7.2.3.1;19.3.1 Distribution of Water Bodies;470
7.2.3.2;19.3.2 Fisheries Production;470
7.2.3.3;19.3.3 Status of Water Quality;472
7.2.3.4;19.3.4 Types of Soil;477
7.2.3.5;19.3.5 Chemical Properties of Soil;477
7.2.3.6;19.3.6 Distribution of Drainage Condition, Hazard Frequency, Soil Nutrients, Soil Reactions, Soil Salinity, and Soil Depth;483
7.2.3.7;19.3.7 Causes of Water Logging;485
7.2.3.8;19.3.8 Suitable Site Selection for Shrimp Culture;485
7.2.3.8.1;19.3.8.1 Decision Making;485
7.2.3.8.2;19.3.8.2 Decision Rules and Knowledge Base;486
7.2.3.8.3;19.3.8.3 Suitability Categories;486
7.2.4;19.4 Conclusion;489
7.2.5;References;490
7.3;Chapter 20: A Multi-criteria Approach for Erosion Risk Assessment Using a New Concept of Spatial Unit Analysis, Wave Model and...;493
7.3.1;20.1 Introduction;493
7.3.2;20.2 The Meaning of Risk;494
7.3.3;20.3 Multi-criteria Approaches for Erosion Risk Assessment;495
7.3.4;20.4 Methodology;496
7.3.4.1;20.4.1 Spatial Units of Analysis;496
7.3.4.2;20.4.2 Risk Assessment;498
7.3.4.2.1;20.4.2.1 Susceptibility Indicators and Index;498
7.3.4.2.2;20.4.2.2 Exposure Indicators and Index;500
7.3.4.2.3;20.4.2.3 Erosion Risk Index;501
7.3.5;20.5 Vila Nova de Gaia Case Study;502
7.3.5.1;20.5.1 Field Data;503
7.3.5.2;20.5.2 Results and Discussion;503
7.3.6;20.6 Conclusions;504
7.3.7;References;506
8;Index;507