Fitzgerald / Johnson / Qin Handbook of Children and Prejudice

Integrating Research, Practice, and Policy
1. Auflage 2019
ISBN: 978-3-030-12228-7
Verlag: Springer International Publishing
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 650 Seiten

Reihe: Behavioral Science and Psychology

This handbook examines the effects and influences on child and youth development of prejudice, discrimination, and inequity as well as other critical contexts, including implicit bias, explicit racism, post immigration processes, social policies, parenting and media influences. It traces the impact of bias and discrimination on children, from infancy through emerging adulthood with implications for later years. The handbook explores ways in which the expanding social, economic, and racial inequities in society are linked to increases in negative outcomes for children through exposure to adverse childhood experiences (ACEs). Chapters examine a range of ACEs - low income, separation/divorce, family substance abuse and mental illness, exposure to neighborhood and/or domestic violence, parental incarceration, immigration and displacement, and parent loss through death. Chapters also discuss discrimination and prejudice within the adverse experiences of African American, Asian American, European American, Latino, Native American, Arab American, and Sikh as well as LGBTQ youth and non-binary children.  Additionally, the handbook elevates dynamic aspects of resilience, adjustment, and the daily triumphs of children and youth faced with issues related to prejudice and differential treatment.Topics featured in the Handbook include:The intergenerational transmission of protective parent responses to historical trauma.
The emotional impact of the acting-white accusation.
DREAMers and their experience growing up undocumented in the USA.
Online racial discrimination and its relation to mental health and academic outcomes.
Teaching strategies for preventing bigoted behavior in class.
Emerging areas such as sociopolitical issues, gender prejudice, and dating violence.
The Handbook of Children and Prejudice is a must-have resource for researchers, graduate students, clinicians, therapists, and other professionals in clinical child and school psychology, social work, public health, developmental psychology, pediatrics, family studies, juvenile justice, child and adolescent psychiatry, and educational psychology.         



Hiram E Fitzgerald, Ph.D is University Distinguished Professor in the Department of Psychology at Michigan State University.  His major areas of research include the study of infant and family development in community contexts, the impact of fathers on early child development, 0-5 age boys and risk, the etiology of alcoholism, and implementation of systemic community models of organizational process and change.  He is a member of the Native Children's Research Exchange, the Tribal Research Center for American Indian/Alaska Native Early Childhood Education,  the national advisory board for the University of Nebraska Buffett Early Childhood Institute, and the external advisory board for the Oklahoma State University Center for Integrative Research on Childhood Adversity.  He is a Fellow of the Association of Psychological Science, and of five Divisions of the American Psychological Association.   Deborah J. Johnson, Ph.D. is professor of Human Development and Family Studies and is also Director of the Diversity Research Network, a faculty serving entity under the auspices of Michigan State University's Office for Inclusion and Intercultural Initiatives. Her research explores racially and culturally related development, parental racial socialization and coping, cultural adjustment from early childhood through emerging adulthood, in both domestic and international children and youth. Current work focuses on the influence of early bias preparation and coping at the intersection of gender and race among African American and Latina College women, and the impact on their well-being and school performance. Recent books, address the global rights of children and private/charter school experiences of African American children. Additionally, she studies cultural adjustment and identity development among unaccompanied Sudanese refugee minors and majors, and in international settings. Further  explorations emphasize positive youth development and identity reformation of immigrant and refugee groups. John Norder, Ph.D. (Spirit Lake and Turtle Mountain) is the Director of the Michigan State University Native American Institute, and an Associate Professor in Anthropology. His research and teaching interests include: Native American and First Nations archaeology, ethnohistory and anthropology, particularly in the Great Lakes region of North America. Current and ongoing work has focused on the ways in which traditional Indigenous knowledge is used as a tool of mediation between issues of identity, cultural and natural resource heritages, and economic development in the context of local and state level political negotiations.Desiree Baolian Qin, Ed.D.,  is Associate Professor of Human Development and Family Studies at Michigan State University. Her research, funded by the William T Grant Foundation and the Spencer Foundation, focuses on understanding how immigration, culture, gender, and ecological contexts, especially family, impact adolescent and emerging adult development. Drawing on mostly mixed-method, longitudinal data, He er research has highlighted many nuanced, complex family processes that have been overlooked in Asian immigrant families, especially struggle in parent-child relations, e.g., emotional alienation, parent-child conflicts, communication challenges, and parent-child separation. Her findings also point to negative effects of tiger parenting in child/adolescent development. Dr. Qin's most recent project examines academic and psychosocial adaptation challenges of Chinese undergraduate students. Francisco A. Villarruel, Ph.D. is Professor and  Associate Chair for Education in the Department of Human Development and Family Studies, and  a University Outreach and Engagement Senior Fellow at Michigan State University.  He is a founding faculty member of the GPI-Youth Development program - an online asynchronous master's program for prospective youth professionals. Dr. Villarruel has worked with numerous communities, state, and federal agencies to address the involvement of Latino youth in juvenile justice systems programs. He serves on the Board of Directors for the Campaign for Youth Justice and is also working with colleagues across the nation to establish The Alianza for Latino Youth Justice - a consortium of practitioners, advocates, funders, families and scholars that seek to engage in culturally relevant practices to address the needs of Latino youth secure placements. 

Autoren/Hrsg.

Fitzgerald, Hiram E.

Johnson, Deborah J.

Qin, Desiree Baolian

Villarruel, Francisco A.

Norder, John

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Preface;5
2;Brief Guide to Cross Chapter Content Emphasizes;7
3;Contents;8
4;Contributors;12
5;About the Editors;18
6;About the Contributors;20
7;Part I: Framing Life Course Impacts of Prejudice;40
7.1;1: Introduction: A Developmental Systems Perspective on Children and Prejudice;41
7.1.1;Risk and Adversity: ACEs and the Case for Racism and Discrimination;43
7.1.2;Identity: Transition and Integration of Categorical to Existential Self;49
7.1.3;Early Origins of Identity: Categorical Self;49
7.1.4;Existential Self;51
7.1.5;The Diversity of One;55
7.1.6;Summary and Key Points;56
7.1.7;References;57
7.2;2: Ethnic and Racial Prejudice Across the Life Span;61
7.2.1;The Psychology of Prejudice;62
7.2.2;Manifestations of Prejudice;63
7.2.2.1;Dehumanization;63
7.2.2.2;Stereotypes;65
7.2.2.3;Stereotype Threat;65
7.2.2.4;Discrimination and Microaggressions;66
7.2.2.5;Skin Colorism;68
7.2.2.6;Some Ethnic-Racial Promotive and Protective Mechanisms;69
7.2.3;Areas in Need of Clarification;70
7.2.4;Implications for Public Policy;72
7.2.5;Summary and Key Points;72
7.2.6;References;72
7.3;3: The Intergenerational Transmission of Protective Parent Responses to Historical Trauma;80
7.3.1;Historical Trauma;80
7.3.1.1;Historical Trauma Response;81
7.3.1.2;Protective Parent Cultural Responses;81
7.3.2;Biopsychosocial Mechanisms and the Historical Trauma Response in Parenting Practices;83
7.3.2.1;Biological Mechanisms;83
7.3.2.2;Parent-Child Attachment and Historical Trauma;86
7.3.2.3;Establishing Cultural Norms;86
7.3.3;Cross-Generation Transmission of Historical Trauma and Protective Parenting Practices;87
7.3.4;The Boarding School “Solution” to Canadian Aboriginal and Native American Cultural Identity;90
7.3.5;Directions for Future Research;91
7.3.6;A Cultural Practices Research Approach Studying Hair Combing Interaction;91
7.3.6.1;Hair Combing Interaction;92
7.3.6.2;Proximity for Touch During the Hair-Combing Task;93
7.3.7;Summary and Key Points;94
7.3.8;References;95
8;Part II Infancy Through Childhood;99
8.1;Overview;99
8.2;Reality Check;99
8.3;References;101
8.4;4: Racial Disparities in Pregnancy and Birth Outcomes;102
8.4.1;Introduction;102
8.4.2;Disparities in Perinatal Health;102
8.4.3;The Role of Race in Health;110
8.4.4;Racism, Not Race;113
8.4.5;Rectifying Racial Disparities;122
8.4.6;Summary and Key Points;124
8.4.7;References;125
8.5;5: Understanding the Implications of Systems of Privilege Within the Field of Early Childhood Education for American Indian and Alaska Native Children;133
8.5.1;Challenges Facing American Indian and Alaska Native Communities;134
8.5.2;Strengths Inherent in American Indian and Alaska Native Communities;135
8.5.2.1;Research on American Indian and Alaska Native Children’s Early Development and Education;136
8.5.3;Implications of Multicultural Measurement for Early Childhood Education and Care;137
8.5.4;Multicultural Theory and Implications for Practice in Tribal Early Childhood Education and Care;138
8.5.4.1;Barriers Facing Early Childhood Education: Voices from Parents, Staff, and Elders;138
8.5.4.1.1;Moving Toward Healing and Empowerment as Family and Community Educators and Researchers;144
8.5.4.2;Summary and Key Points;145
8.5.5;References;146
8.6;6: Intergroup Relationships, Context, and Prejudice in Childhood;149
8.6.1;Theoretical Framework;150
8.6.2;Intergroup Peer Inclusion and Exclusion;150
8.6.2.1;Differing Expectations for Exclusion;152
8.6.2.2;Minority and Majority Perspectives;153
8.6.3;Intergroup Contact and Friendships;154
8.6.4;Prejudice, Bias, and Perceptions of Similarity;155
8.6.5;Mental State Knowledge as Necessary for Rejecting Prejudicial Behavior;157
8.6.6;Challenging Prejudice and Unfair Treatment;158
8.6.6.1;Rectifying Group-Level Resource Inequalities;158
8.6.6.2;Rejecting Prejudice in Peer Contexts;159
8.6.7;Summary and Key Points;160
8.6.8;References;161
8.7;7: Ethnic-Racial Socialization in Early Childhood: The Implications of Color-Consciousness and Colorblindness for Prejudice Development;165
8.7.1;Ethnic-Racial Socialization of Young Children;166
8.7.1.1;The Content of Ethnic-Racial Socialization;166
8.7.1.2;Racial Socialization in White Families;167
8.7.1.3;The Impact of Ethnic-Racial Socialization on Young Children;168
8.7.1.4;Colorblindness, Color-Muteness, and Color-Consciousness in Educational Contexts;169
8.7.1.5;The Impact of Silence and Colorblindness;170
8.7.1.6;The Impact of Color-Consciousness;171
8.7.1.7;Risks of Engaging in Racial Socialization;172
8.7.1.8;Antibias Education;173
8.7.1.9;Research on Antibias Practices;174
8.7.1.10;Developmental Considerations;175
8.7.2;Summary and Key Points;175
8.7.2.1;Key Points;175
8.7.3;References;175
8.8;8: An Ecological Approach to Childhood Prejudice: The Case of Arab Americans;180
8.8.1;Who Are Arab Americans?;181
8.8.2;Theory;182
8.8.2.1;Acquisition of Prejudice in Children;182
8.8.2.2;Levels of Prejudice;183
8.8.3;An Ecological Model of Childhood Prejudice;184
8.8.3.1;How Various Levels Impact Prejudice in Childhood among Arab Americans;184
8.8.4;Summary and Key Points;189
8.8.5;References;190
8.9;9: The Impact of US Sociopolitical Issues on the Prejudicial Treatment of Latino Children and Youth;193
8.9.1;Demographic Overview of Latinos in the United States;194
8.9.2;Sociopolitical Issues Impacting Latinos in the United States;194
8.9.3;The Impact of Sociopolitical Issues on the Lives of Latino Children and Youth;197
8.9.4;Settings in Which Prejudice Takes Place;198
8.9.4.1;Prejudice in Schools;198
8.9.4.2;Juvenile Justice System;199
8.9.4.3;Community;200
8.9.4.4;Healthcare Settings;201
8.9.5;Impact of Prejudice;201
8.9.5.1;Psychological Impact;201
8.9.5.2;Social Impact;202
8.9.5.3;Academic Impact;203
8.9.6;Coping with Prejudice;203
8.9.6.1;Ethnic Identity;203
8.9.6.2;Family Support;204
8.9.6.3;Social Support;204
8.9.6.4;Individual Factors;204
8.9.7;Summary and Key Points;205
8.9.8;References;206
8.10;10: Implicit Bias and the “In/visible Indian” in the Classroom;213
8.10.1;Implicit Bias and the “In/visible Indian”;214
8.10.2;Deconstructing Instructor Bias;215
8.10.3;Dismantling Implicit Bias for Empowered and Empowering Teaching;217
8.10.4;Understanding the Value-Added Experience of the Diverse Classroom;220
8.10.5;Summary and Key Findings;221
8.10.6;References;221
8.11;11: In the Nyitting Time: The Journey of Identity Development for Western Australian Aboriginal Children and Youth and the Interplay of Racism;224
8.11.1;Identity;225
8.11.2;Aboriginal Identity;225
8.11.3;Identity Development in Two Worlds;230
8.11.4;Prejudice, Racism and Discrimination;231
8.11.5;Racism in Australia;231
8.11.6;Implications of Prejudice, Racism and Discrimination on Identity Development;233
8.11.7;Protective Factors of Aboriginal Identity upon Child Development and Wellbeing;234
8.11.8;Implications for Practice and Policy;235
8.11.9;Summary and Key Points;235
8.11.10;References;239
9;Part III Transition to Youth;243
9.1;Overview;243
9.2;Reference;245
9.3;12: Interrogating “Trouble”: An Ecologically Centered Approach to Race-Related Socialization Factors as Moderators of Disruptive Behaviors and Achievement Outcomes Among African American Boys;246
9.3.1;Investigating the Relation of Race-Based Factors to Academic Outcomes;248
9.3.1.1;Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development Data Base;249
9.3.1.1.1;SECCYD Data Sources;249
9.3.2;Analyzing the SECCYD Data;251
9.3.3;Analysis Approach and Model Review;251
9.3.3.1;What Did Analyses Reveal?;252
9.3.4;Relationships Between Variables;253
9.3.5;Hierarchical Regressions;255
9.3.5.1;Significance of Our Analyses;257
9.3.6;Summary and Key Points;259
9.3.7;References;259
9.4;13: Perceived Racial Discrimination as a Context for Parenting in African American and European American Youth;262
9.4.1;Theoretical Underpinnings;263
9.4.2;Ethnic-Racial Socialization;263
9.4.3;Ethnic-Racial Socialization and Youth Outcomes;264
9.4.4;The Role of Racial Discrimination Within Ethnic-Racial Socialization Practices;264
9.4.5;Addressing the Gaps;265
9.4.5.1;Methods;266
9.4.5.1.1;Sample;266
9.4.5.1.2;Measures;266
9.4.5.1.2.1;Racial Discrimination;266
9.4.5.1.2.2;Ethnic-Racial Socialization;268
9.4.5.2;Results;268
9.4.5.2.1;Research Questions;268
9.4.6;Discussion;270
9.4.7;Limitations and Future Directions;273
9.4.8;Moving into the Global Context: Understanding Race and Socialization Practices;273
9.4.9;Summary and Key Points;273
9.4.10;Key Points;274
9.4.11;References;274
9.5;14: Racial Discrimination and Adjustment Among Asian American Youth: Vulnerability and Protective Factors in the Face of “Chinks,” “Dog-Eaters,” and “Jackie Chan”;277
9.5.1;What Do We Know?;278
9.5.2;Racial and Ethnic Discrimination, Stereotypes, and Adjustment;278
9.5.3;Mechanisms to Explain Why Discrimination Is Linked to Adjustment;281
9.5.4;Linked Lives;282
9.5.5;Vulnerability Factors that Can Exacerbate the Discrimination-Adjustment Link;283
9.5.6;Protective Factors that Can Weaken the Discrimination-Adjustment Link;284
9.5.7;Variations Among Asian-Heritage Groups that Are Less Studied;286
9.5.8;Practical Implications of What We Know About Discrimination Among Asian American Children and Adolescents;289
9.5.9;Summary and Key Points;291
9.5.10;References;291
9.6;15: When Things Go Viral: Youth’s Discrimination Exposure in the World of Social Media;297
9.6.1;Framing Online Ethnic-Racial Discrimination Among Minority Youth;298
9.6.1.1;Theoretical Considerations for Online Ethnic-Racial Discrimination;299
9.6.2;Distinctions of Online Ethnic-Racial Discrimination;300
9.6.2.1;Types of Online Discrimination;301
9.6.3;Social Media Contexts;302
9.6.3.1;Interpreting Viral Online Ethnic-Racial Discrimination Content;302
9.6.3.2;Mechanisms of Engagement Within Social Media;304
9.6.4;Youths’ Adaptive Coping and Resilience to Online Discrimination;306
9.6.4.1;Environmental Contexts and Support for Online Discrimination;306
9.6.4.2;Navigating and Transforming Social Media Experiences;309
9.6.4.3;Algorithmic Accountability and Responsible Data Practices;310
9.6.4.4;Directions for Future Research;311
9.6.5;Summary and Key Points;312
9.6.6;References;313
9.7;16: Gender and Sexual Prejudice and Subsequent Development of Dating Violence: Intersectionality Among Youth;316
9.7.1;Adolescence, Gender Prejudice, and Sexual Prejudice;317
9.7.2;Epidemiology of Adolescent Relationship Violence;318
9.7.3;Development of Violence in Children and Adolescents;319
9.7.4;Marginalized Identities and Adolescent Relationship Violence;321
9.7.5;Summary and Key Points;323
9.7.6;References;324
9.8;17: LGBQ Youth and Sexual Minority-Related Prejudice: Expanding Our Conceptualization;330
9.8.1;Who Are LGBQ Youth?;330
9.8.2;LGBQ Youth Experiences with Prejudice;331
9.8.2.1;Prejudice Within the Family Context;331
9.8.3;Effects of Sexual Minority-Related Prejudice on LGBQ Youth;332
9.8.4;The Current Study;332
9.8.5;Method;333
9.8.5.1;Participants;333
9.8.5.2;Procedures;333
9.8.5.3;Coding Procedures;333
9.8.6;Results;333
9.8.6.1;Traditionally Defined Forms of Prejudice;333
9.8.6.2;Conditional Acceptance;334
9.8.6.3;Contradictory Responses;334
9.8.6.4;Preference for Conformity;335
9.8.6.5;Stereotyping;335
9.8.6.6;Topic Avoidance;336
9.8.6.7;Changes in Relationships and Behaviors;336
9.8.6.8;Parental Concealment;336
9.8.6.9;Parental Embarrassment and Shame;337
9.8.7;Limitations;337
9.8.8;Summary and Key Points;338
9.8.9;References;338
9.9;18: (No) Space for Prejudice! Varied Forms of Negative Outgroup Attitudes and Ethnic Discrimination and How They Develop or Can Be Prevented in the Classroom;341
9.9.1;What Does P&D Look Like in Schools?;342
9.9.1.1;Overt P&D by Peers;342
9.9.1.2;Explicit and Implicit Discriminatory Social Exclusion by Peers;342
9.9.1.3;Microaggressions;343
9.9.1.4;Structural Inequality and Segregation;343
9.9.1.5;P&D by Teachers;344
9.9.2;Consequences of Prejudice in Schools;344
9.9.2.1;Psychological Consequences;345
9.9.2.2;Social Consequences;345
9.9.2.3;Physical Consequences;346
9.9.2.4;Behavioral Consequences;346
9.9.2.5;Academic Consequences;347
9.9.3;How Classroom Context Can Promote or Prevent Prejudice and Ethnic Discrimination;348
9.9.3.1;Classroom Ethnic Composition;348
9.9.3.2;Cultural Diversity Climate;349
9.9.3.3;Cross-Ethnic Friendships;350
9.9.3.4;Summary and Key Points;352
9.9.4;References;352
9.10;19: Feelings of Being Caught Between Families and Peers: Linking Cultural Incongruence and Peer Ethnic/Racial Discrimination to Adolescent Well-Being;357
9.10.1;Cultural Incongruence and Peer Ethnic/Racial Discrimination as Risk Factors for Adolescent Adjustment;358
9.10.2;Adolescents’ Feelings of Being Caught Between Families and Peers as a Mediator;359
9.10.3;The Moderating Role of Adolescent, Family, and Peer Characteristics;360
9.10.4;The Incongruence Study;361
9.10.5;What Did We Find: Bivariate Correlations Linking Cultural Incongruence and Peer Ethnic/Racial Discrimination to Adolescent Adjustment;363
9.10.6;The Mediating Role of Adolescents’ Feelings of Being Caught;365
9.10.7;The Moderating Role of Coping Strategies and Relationship Qualities;367
9.10.8;Significance and Meaning of Our Findings;367
9.10.9;Summary and Key Points;370
9.10.10;References;370
10;Part IV Transitions from Youth to Adolescence;374
10.1;Overview;374
10.2;20: Youth of Color in Care: Intersecting Identities and Vulnerabilities;377
10.2.1;Epidemiology of Youth of Color in Care;378
10.2.2;Systemic Issues Affecting Placement and Ongoing Experiences in Care;379
10.2.2.1;Removal from Home and Placement in Care;380
10.2.2.2;Contextual Barriers to Parental Engagement with CW System;380
10.2.2.3;Effects of Multiple Placements;381
10.2.2.4;Maltreatment in Foster Care;381
10.2.2.5;High Turnover of CW Professionals;382
10.2.2.6;Impact of Foster Experiences on Identity Development of Youth of Color;382
10.2.2.7;Intersection of Other Identities and Critical Experiences with Foster Care Experience;383
10.2.2.7.1;Gender and Sexual Identity;383
10.2.2.7.2;Immigrant Status;384
10.2.2.7.3;Disability;385
10.2.2.7.4;Crossover Youth;387
10.2.2.7.5;Children with Incarcerated Parents;387
10.2.3;Systemic Supports Needed for Youth of Color and Their Intersecting Identities;388
10.2.3.1;Identity Development Among Foster Youth of Color in Care;389
10.2.3.2;Needs of LGBTQ+ Youth of Color in Care;390
10.2.3.3;Needs of Immigrant Youth in Care;390
10.2.3.4;Needs of Youth of Color in Care Who Have Disabilities;390
10.2.3.5;Needs of Crossover Youth and Children with Incarcerated Parents;391
10.2.3.6;Research Needs;391
10.2.4;Summary and Key Points;392
10.2.5;References;393
10.3;21: Toward an Integrative Conceptual Model on the Relations Between Discrimination and Prosocial Behaviors in US Latino/Latina Youth;398
10.3.1;Prosocial Behaviors as a Behavioral Outcome;399
10.3.2;Links Between Discrimination and Prosocial Behaviors;400
10.3.3;Risk and Protective Factors for Youth;402
10.3.4;Understanding Cultural Stress and Prosocial Behaviors Among US Latino/Latina Youth;404
10.3.5;Underlying Factors that Play a Role in the Links Between Cultural Stress and Prosocial Outcomes;405
10.3.6;Protective Factors to Consider When Examining Stress and Prosocial Outcomes;405
10.3.7;Summary and Key Points;407
10.3.8;Considerations for Researchers;407
10.3.9;Considerations for Practitioners;407
10.3.10;References;408
10.4;22: Experiences of Discrimination and Prejudice Among American Indian Youth: Links to Psychosocial Functioning;412
10.4.1;Minority Stressors;412
10.4.1.1;Historical Trauma/Colonization;412
10.4.1.2;Stereotypes and Prejudice;414
10.4.1.3;Discrimination;414
10.4.1.4;Harassment;415
10.4.1.5;Bullying;415
10.4.2;Links to Psychosocial Outcomes;416
10.4.2.1;Mental Health;416
10.4.2.2;Physical Health;418
10.4.2.3;Education;419
10.4.3;Resiliency;420
10.4.3.1;Ethnic Identity;420
10.4.3.2;Family and Community Engagement;420
10.4.3.3;Spiritual and Traditional Healing Practices;421
10.4.3.4;Coping Strategies/Skills;421
10.4.3.5;Sense of School Belonging;422
10.4.4;Summary and Key Points;422
10.4.5;References;423
10.5;23: Mistaken Identities, Discrimination, and Sikh Parents’ Ethnoreligious Socialization Strategies;428
10.5.1;Discrimination and Sikhs in the United States;429
10.5.2;Islamophobia and Mistaken Identities;430
10.5.3;Ethnoreligious Identity Development in Adolescents;431
10.5.4;Discrimination, Youth Development, and Ethnoreligious Stress;432
10.5.5;Sikh Males at a Higher Risk;432
10.5.6;Parent Ethnoreligious Socialization;433
10.5.7;Sikh Immigrant Rearing Practices and Children’s Identity Development;433
10.5.7.1;Interviews with Sikh Parents/Families;434
10.5.7.2;Gathering and Understanding Interview Data;434
10.5.8;What Did We Learn?;434
10.5.8.1;Experiences of Discrimination;434
10.5.8.2;Ethnoreligious Stress;436
10.5.8.3;Stress Mitigation;438
10.5.9;Reflections;439
10.5.10;Summary and Key Points;440
10.5.11;References;442
10.6;24: Juvenile (In)justice: A System Developed to Facilitate Youth Development that Challenges Healthy Outcomes;444
10.6.1;History of the Juvenile Justice System;444
10.6.2;Macro Factors;446
10.6.2.1;“Zero Tolerance” Policies and the School-To-Prison Pipeline;446
10.6.2.2;The “Adultification” of the Juvenile Justice System;448
10.6.3;Community Factors;450
10.6.3.1;Family;450
10.6.3.2;Education;452
10.6.3.3;Gangs;452
10.6.4;Individual Factors;454
10.6.4.1;Mental Health;454
10.6.4.2;Electronic Monitoring;455
10.6.4.3;Race and Ethnicity;456
10.6.4.4;Gender;460
10.6.4.5;The Transition to Adulthood;460
10.6.5;Summary and Key Points;461
10.6.6;References;462
10.7;25: A Developmental Perspective on Victimization Faced by Gender Nonconforming Youth;470
10.7.1;Gender Socialization Across the Life Span;471
10.7.1.1;Social Cognitive Theories of Gender Development;471
10.7.1.2;Neutral, Positive, and Negative Methods of Gender Socialization;472
10.7.1.3;Negative Socialization by Parents and Peers;473
10.7.2;Risk of Gender-Related Victimization in Sexual and Gender Minority Youth;475
10.7.2.1;Parent Victimization;475
10.7.2.2;Peer Victimization;475
10.7.3;Negative Sequelae Associated with Gender Nonconformity and Conformity;475
10.7.3.1;Gender Nonconformity and Maladjustment;476
10.7.3.2;Gender Conformity and Maladjustment;476
10.7.3.3;Differences Across Birth-Assigned Sex;477
10.7.4;Implications for Intervention and Policy;478
10.7.4.1;School-Based Methods;478
10.7.4.2;Methods for Families and Parents;479
10.7.5;Summary and Key Points;480
10.7.6;References;480
11;Part V Transitions from Adolescence to Emergent Adulthood;485
11.1;Overview;485
11.2;26: You Sound White: The Emotional Impact of the Acting White Accusation;489
11.2.1;Definition;489
11.2.2;Prevalence;490
11.2.3;Response to the Accusation;490
11.2.3.1;Bother;491
11.2.3.2;Identity Exploration and the Acting White Trap;491
11.2.3.3;AWA and Clinical Symptomatology;493
11.2.4;Summary and Key Points;495
11.2.5;References;496
11.3;27: Ethnic/Racial Identity as a Moderator of the Relationship Between Discrimination and Adolescent Outcomes;499
11.3.1;Prejudice and Discrimination Among Adolescents;500
11.3.2;Ethnic/Racial Identity (ERI);501
11.3.3;Moderating Effect of ERI;502
11.3.4;Academic Outcomes;503
11.3.4.1;Grades;503
11.3.4.2;School Engagement Outcomes;504
11.3.5;Mental Health;505
11.3.5.1;Self-Esteem;505
11.3.5.2;Depressive Symptoms;506
11.3.5.3;Anxiety;507
11.3.5.4;Stress;508
11.3.6;Externalizing Behaviors;508
11.3.7;Health Behaviors and Physical Health Outcomes;509
11.3.7.1;Health Behaviors;510
11.3.7.2;Physical Health;511
11.3.8;Summary and Key Points;512
11.3.8.1;Limitations and Future Directions;513
11.3.8.2;Implications;515
11.3.9;References;515
11.4;28: Online Racism: Adjustment and Protective Factors Among Adolescents of Color;522
11.4.1;Defining Online Racism;522
11.4.1.1;Online Racial Microaggressions;523
11.4.1.2;Online Racial Discrimination;523
11.4.1.3;Online Hate Crimes;523
11.4.2;Prevalence of Online Racism;524
11.4.3;Differences Between Online and Offline Racism;525
11.4.4;Online Racism: From the Infrastructure to Social Media Platform Interfaces;525
11.4.4.1;Structural Racism on the Internet;526
11.4.4.2;Racism on Social Media;526
11.4.5;Effects of Online Racism on Adolescents;528
11.4.5.1;Mental Health Outcomes;528
11.4.5.2;Behavioral Outcomes;529
11.4.5.3;Academic Outcomes;529
11.4.5.4;Social Skills;529
11.4.6;Protective Factors;530
11.4.7;Summary and Key Points;531
11.4.8;References;532
11.5;29: Latino Adolescents’ Experiences with Ethnic Discrimination: Moderating Factors and Mediating Mechanisms;535
11.5.1;Sources of Discrimination;536
11.5.2;Examination of Context and Process in Ethnic Discrimination Research;539
11.5.3;Moderating Factors;539
11.5.4;Mediating Mechanisms;542
11.5.5;Summary and Key Points;545
11.5.6;Summary and Key Points;546
11.5.7;References;547
11.6;30: African American Adolescents Speak: The Meaning of Racial Identity in the Relation Between Individual Race-Related Stress and Depressive Symptoms;552
11.6.1;Adolescent Reports of Racism and Discrimination;553
11.6.1.1;Our Approach;556
11.6.1.1.1;Participant Responses to Quantitative Questionnaires;558
11.6.1.1.2;Participant Responses to Qualitative Questions;561
11.6.1.1.3;What Did We Find?;564
11.6.2;Summary and Key Points;566
11.6.3;References;567
11.7;31: DREAMers: Growing Up Undocumented in the United States of America;570
11.7.1;US Government Response to Undocumented Individuals;571
11.7.1.1;Opening the Door to Undocumented Immigrants: Plyler v. Doe;571
11.7.1.2;Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant Responsibility Act (IIRIRA);572
11.7.1.3;DREAM Act: A Failed Attempt to Legal Citizenship;573
11.7.1.4;Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA);573
11.7.1.5;The Deferred Action for Parents of Americans (DAPA);574
11.7.1.6;2017: Attempts to Address Immigration;575
11.7.1.7;DACA Rescinded;576
11.7.1.8;Current Examination;576
11.7.2;Four Stories of Undocumented US College Students;577
11.7.2.1;Diana’s Story;577
11.7.2.2;Joana’s Story;578
11.7.2.3;Jose’s Story;578
11.7.2.4;Ana’s Story;579
11.7.3;Recommendations;580
11.7.4;Discussion and Conclusion;581
11.7.5;References;582
11.8;32: Sexual Stigma and Sexual Prejudice: Understanding the Unique Experiences of Sexual Minority Male Youth;585
11.8.1;Sexual Identity Development and Oppression;586
11.8.2;Masculine Gender Roles and Sexual Minority Men;587
11.8.3;Mental and Physical Health of Sexual Minority Male Youth;590
11.8.4;Resilience, Positive Identity, and Connection;593
11.8.5;Summary and Key Points;594
11.8.6;References;595
11.9;33: Gender Nonconformity During Adolescence: Links with Stigma, Sexual Minority Status, and Psychosocial Outcomes;600
11.9.1;Definitions;600
11.9.2;History of This Research Question;602
11.9.3;Theoretical Rationale;602
11.9.3.1;Minority Stress Theory;603
11.9.3.2;Stigma Theory;603
11.9.3.3;Gender Intensification Theory;604
11.9.4;Gender Nonconformity, Victimization, and Psychosocial Outcomes;604
11.9.5;Gender Nonconformity as a Mediator/Moderator of Sexual Minority Status and Harassment/Victimization;605
11.9.6;Differences Across Gender;607
11.9.7;Summary and Key Points;608
11.9.7.1;Practice and Policy;608
11.9.7.2;Summary and Key Points;609
11.9.8;References;609
11.10;34: “I Can Feel That People Living Here Don’t Like Chinese Students”: Perceived Discrimination and Chinese International Student Adaptation;614
11.10.1;Introduction;615
11.10.1.1;Stereotype and Discrimination;615
11.10.1.2;Perceived Discrimination and Psychological Well-Being;616
11.10.1.3;Stereotypes, Perceived Discrimination, and (Chinese) International Student Adaptation;616
11.10.1.4;Limitation in Previous Studies;618
11.10.1.5;Theoretical Frameworks;618
11.10.2;Our Approach to Inquiry: In-Depth Interviewing;619
11.10.3;What Did We Learn?: Chinese Student Narratives;620
11.10.3.1;Perceived Stereotypes;621
11.10.3.2;Perceived Discrimination;621
11.10.3.3;Students’ Feelings about Perceived Stereotypes and Discrimination;624
11.10.3.4;Students’ Responses to Perceived Stereotypes and Discrimination;625
11.10.4;Discussion;626
11.10.5;Practical Implications;627
11.10.6;Summary and Key Points;628
11.10.7;References;629
12;Index;632