Gao / Schmoldt UV Radiation in Global Climate Change

Measurements, Modeling and Effects on Ecosystems
1. Auflage 2010
ISBN: 978-3-642-03313-1
Verlag: Springer
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: Adobe DRM (»Systemvoraussetzungen)

E-Book, Englisch, 544 Seiten

Numerous studies report that ultraviolet (UV) radiation is harmful to living organisms and detrimental to human health. Growing concerns regarding the increased levels of UV-B radiation that reach the earth's surface have led to the development of ground- and space-based measurement programs. Further study is needed on the measurement, modeling, and effects of UV radiation. The chapters of this book describe the research conducted across the globe over the past three decades in the areas of: (1) current and predicted levels of UV radiation and its associated impact on ecosystems and human health, as well as economic and social implications; (2) new developments in UV instrumentation, advances in calibration (ground- and satellite-based), measurement methods, modeling efforts, and their applications; and (3) the effects of global climate change on UV radiation. Dr. Wei Gao is a Senior Research Scientist and the Director of the USDA UV-B Monitoring and Research Program, Natural Resource Ecology Laboratory, Colorado State University. Dr. Gao is a SPIE fellow and serves as the Editor-in-Chief for the Journal of Applied Remote Sensing. Dr. Daniel L. Schmoldt is the National Program Leader for instrumentation and sensors at the National Institute of Food and Agriculture (NIFA) of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Dr. Schmoldt served as joint Editor-in-Chief of the journal, Computers & Electronics in Agriculture, from 1997 to 2004. Dr. James R. Slusser retired in 2007 from the USDA UV-B Monitoring and Research Program at Colorado State University. He was active in the Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers, the American Geophysical Union, and the American Meteorological Society. Dr. Slusser is currently pursuing his interests in solar energy and atmospheric transmission.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Gao, Wei

Schmoldt, Daniel

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Preface;7
2;Table of Contents;9
3;List of Contributors;18
4;1 A Climatology of UV Radiation, 1979– 2000, 65S –65N;22
4.1;1.1 Introduction;22
4.2;1.2 Method;23
4.3;1.3 Results;27
4.3.1;1.3.1 Satellite-Derived UV Climatologies;27
4.3.2;1.3.2 Comparison with Ground-Based Measurements;35
4.3.3;1.3.3 Discussion of Uncertanties;37
4.4;1.4 Conclusions;38
4.5;References;39
5;2 Balancing the Risks and Benefits of Ultraviolet Radiation;42
5.1;2.1 Introduction;43
5.2;2.2 Long Term Changes in UVEry;43
5.3;2.3 Geographical Variability in UVEry;44
5.4;2.4 Peak UV;45
5.4.1;2.4.1 Peak UV Index;45
5.4.2;2.4.2 Peak UV Daily Dose;49
5.5;2.5 Comparing Weighting Functions for Erythema and Vitamin D;50
5.6;2.6 Seasonal and Diurnal Variation of UVEry and UVVitD;52
5.7;2.7 Global Climatologies of UVEry and UVVitD;54
5.8;2.8 Relationship Between UVVitD and UVEry;57
5.9;2.9 Production of Vitamin D from Sunlight;59
5.10;2.10 Calculation of Optimal Times for Exposure to Sunlight;59
5.11;2.11 An Inconsistency;63
5.12;2.12 Conclusions;65
5.13;References;66
6;3 Climatology of Ultraviolet Radiation at High Latitudes Derived from Measurements of the National Science Foundation’s Ultraviolet Spectral Irradiance Monitoring Network;69
6.1;3.1 Introduction;70
6.2;3.2 Data Analysis;72
6.2.1;3.2.1 Data;72
6.2.2;3.2.2 Establishment of Climatologies;73
6.2.3;3.2.3 Estimates of Historical UV Indices;73
6.3;3.3 UV Index Climatology;77
6.3.1;3.3.1 South Pole;77
6.3.2;3.3.2 McMurdo Station;78
6.3.3;3.3.3 Palmer Station;80
6.3.4;3.3.4 Ushuaia;81
6.3.5;3.3.5 San Diego;81
6.3.6;3.3.6 Barrow;82
6.4;3.4 Climatology of UV-A Irradiance;83
6.5;3.5 Comparison of Radiation Levels at Network Sites;86
6.6;3.6 Conclusions and Outlook;90
6.7;References;91
7;4 UV Solar Radiation in Polar Regions: Consequences for the Environment and Human Health;94
7.1;4.1 Introduction;95
7.2;4.2 Networks and Databanks;97
7.3;4.3 Impact of Solar UV on the Environment;100
7.3.1;4.3.1 Effect of the Environment on Solar UV;106
7.4;4.4 Impact of Solar UV on Human Health;109
7.4.1;4.4.1 Information and Protection Programs;113
7.4.2;4.4.2 Dosimetry, UV Modeling, and Instruments;114
7.5;4.5 Concluding Remarks;119
7.6;References;120
8;5 Changes in Ultraviolet and Visible Solar Irradiance 1979 to 2008;127
8.1;5.1 Introduction;127
8.2;5.2 Instrumentation;133
8.3;5.3 Detection of Long-Term Change;142
8.3.1;5.3.1 Radiation Amplification Factor;143
8.3.2;5.3.2 Different Definitions of RAF;146
8.3.3;5.3.3 Estimating UV Trends: Discussion;147
8.3.4;5.3.4 Reduction of UV Irradiance by Clouds and Aerosols;149
8.3.5;5.3.5 Stokes Derivation of CT=(1–R) / (1–RG);151
8.3.6;5.3.6 UV Absorption;153
8.3.7;5.3.7 Estimating Zonal Average UV Change;153
8.3.8;5.3.8 Estimating UV Trends: Satellites;154
8.3.9;5.3.9 Estimating UV Trends: Ground-Based;159
8.4;5.4 UV in the Polar Regions;160
8.5;5.5 Human Exposure to UV;161
8.6;5.6 UV Index and Units;164
8.7;5.7 Action Spectra and Irradiance Trends;164
8.8;5.8 UV Summary;172
8.9;Appendix 5.1 Calculating RAF(ø) ;174
8.10;References;176
9;6 The Brewer Spectrophotometer;181
9.1;6.1 Introduction;181
9.2;6.2 History;182
9.3;6.3 The Instrument;184
9.3.1;6.3.1 The Fore-Optics;186
9.3.2;6.3.2 The Spectrometer;187
9.3.3;6.3.3 The Photomultiplier Housing;189
9.3.4;6.3.4 Support Electronics;190
9.3.5;6.3.5 The Control Computer;191
9.4;6.4 Corrections Applied to Data;191
9.4.1;6.4.1 Dark Count;191
9.4.2;6.4.2 Dead Time;192
9.4.3;6.4.3 Stray Light;193
9.4.4;6.4.4 Temperature Response;193
9.4.5;6.4.5 Neutral Density Filters;194
9.4.6;6.4.6 Cosine Response;194
9.4.7;6.4.7 Internal Polarization;195
9.5;6.5 Measurement of Total Ozone;196
9.5.1;6.5.1 Measurement Technique;196
9.5.2;6.5.2 Calibration;198
9.6;6.6 Measurement of Spectral UV Radiation;200
9.7;6.7 Measurement of Other Atmospheric Variables;202
9.7.1;6.7.1 Vertical Profile of Ozone;203
9.7.2;6.7.2 Atmospheric SO2;203
9.7.3;6.7.3 Atmospheric NO2;204
9.7.4;6.7.4 Aerosol Optical Depth;204
9.7.5;6.7.5 Effective Temperature of Atmospheric Ozone;205
9.8;6.8 The Brewer Spectrophotometer as a Powerful Research Tool;206
9.9;6.9 Summary;207
9.10;References;207
10;7 Techniques for Solar Dosimetry in Different Environments;213
10.1;7.1 Introduction;213
10.2;7.2 UV Dosimetry and Minimization Strategies;215
10.3;7.3 Miniaturization of Polysulphone Dosimeters;216
10.4;7.4 Measurements on Plants;218
10.5;7.5 Long-Term UV Dosimeters;220
10.6;7.6 Vitamin D Effective UV Dosimetry;221
10.7;7.7 Discussion and Conclusions;222
10.8;References;223
11;8 An Ultraviolet Radiation Monitoring and Research Program for Agriculture;226
11.1;8.1 Introduction;227
11.2;8.2 Introduction to the USDA UVMRP (Purpose and History);228
11.3;8.3 Monitoring Network;229
11.3.1;8.3.1 Sites and Coverage;229
11.3.2;8.3.2 Data Products Provided by UVMRP;230
11.4;8.4 Data Collection and Processing;231
11.4.1;8.4.1 UV-MFRSR Data Processing;233
11.4.1.1;8.4.1.1 Dark Current Bias Removal;233
11.4.1.2;8.4.1.2 Cosine Correction;234
11.4.1.3;8.4.1.3 Out-of-Band Correction;234
11.4.2;8.4.2 Erythemally Weighted UV Irradiance;236
11.4.2.1;8.4.2.1 Angular (Cosine) Response of the UVB-1 Pyranometer;237
11.4.2.2;8.4.2.2 UVB-1 Spectral Response and Influence of Columnar Ozone;239
11.4.3;8.4.3 Langley Analysis;240
11.4.4;8.4.4 Data Processing for Other Measurements;242
11.5;8.5 Derived Products;243
11.5.1;8.5.1 Optical Depth;244
11.5.1.1;8.5.1.1 Instantaneous Optical Depth;244
11.5.1.2;8.5.1.2 Average Optical Depth;245
11.5.2;8.5.2 Daily Column Ozone;245
11.5.3;8.5.3 Synthetic Spectrum Data;246
11.6;8.6 Database Design and Website Interface;248
11.6.1;8.6.1 The Data;248
11.7;8.7 UVMRP’s Role in UV-B Agricultural Effects Studies;250
11.7.1;8.7.1 Mississippi State University;251
11.7.2;8.7.2 Purdue University;251
11.7.3;8.7.3 Utah State University;252
11.7.4;8.7.4 University of Maryland;252
11.7.5;8.7.5 Washington State University;252
11.7.6;8.7.6 University of Illinois — Chicago;253
11.7.7;8.7.7 Highlights of Other Collaborations;253
11.8;8.8 Modeling of Agricultural Sustainability;254
11.9;8.9 Future Considerations;255
11.10;8.10 Summary;256
11.11;References;258
12;9 Radiative Transfer in the Coupled Atmosphere-Snow-Ice-Ocean (CASIO) System: Review of Modeling Capabilities;265
12.1;9.1 Introduction;266
12.2;9.2 Radiative Transfer Modeling;268
12.2.1;9.2.1 Sun-Earth Geometry;268
12.2.2;9.2.2 Spectrum of Solar Radiation;269
12.2.3;9.2.3 Atmospheric Vertical Structure;270
12.2.4;9.2.4 Light Interaction with Absorbing and Scattering Media;271
12.2.4.1;9.2.4.1 Absorption and Scattering by Atmospheric Molecules and Pure Water;271
12.2.4.2;9.2.4.2.. Absorption and Scattering by Particles;273
12.2.4.3;9.2.4.3 Optical Properties of the Ocean;274
12.2.4.4;9.2.4.4 Definitions of Irradiance and Radiance;275
12.2.4.5;9.2.4.5 Absorption, Scattering, and Extinction by Molecules and Particles;276
12.2.5;9.2.5 Equation of Radiative Transfer;277
12.2.6;9.2.6 Surface Reflection and Transmission;278
12.2.7;9.2.7 Radiative Transfer in a Coupled Atmosphere-Snow-Ice-Ocean (CASIO) System;279
12.3;9.3 Sample Applications of the Theory;280
12.3.1;9.3.1 Comparison of Modeled Irradiances in CAO Systems;280
12.3.2;9.3.2 Measured and Modeled Radiation Fields in Sea Ice;282
12.3.3;9.3.3 Radiation Trapping in Sea Ice;282
12.3.4;9.3.4 Impact of Ozone Depletion on Primary Productivity;284
12.4;9.4 Discussion and Conclusions;285
12.5;References;286
13;10 Comparative Analysis of UV-B Exposure Between Nimbus 7/TOMS Satellite Estimates and Ground-Based Measurements;291
13.1;10.1 Introduction;292
13.2;10.2 Materials and Methods;295
13.2.1;10.2.1 USDA UV-B Dataset;295
13.2.2;10.2.2 TOMS Dataset;295
13.2.3;10.2.3 UV Index;297
13.2.4;10.2.4 Comparative Analysis;297
13.3;10.3 Results and Discussion;298
13.3.1;10.3.1 UV-I Daily Change Analysis;298
13.3.2;10.3.2 Analysis of UV-I Variability;300
13.3.3;10.3.3 UV-I Spatial Analysis;302
13.4;10.4 Conclusions;308
13.5;References;310
14;11 Ultraviolet Radiation and Its Interaction with Air Pollution;312
14.1;11.1 Introduction;312
14.1.1;11.1.1 Factors Affecting UV Flux at the Earth’s Surface;313
14.1.1.1;11.1.1.1 Solar Zenith Angle;313
14.1.1.2;11.1.1.2 Stratospheric Ozone;314
14.1.1.3;11.1.1.3 Cloud Cover;315
14.1.1.4;11.1.1.4 Atmospheric Density;317
14.1.1.5;11.1.1.5 Air Pollution (Gases and Aerosols);317
14.2;11.2 Optics of the Atmosphere;322
14.2.1;11.2.1 Scattering;322
14.2.2;11.2.2 Absorption;324
14.2.3;11.2.3 Emission;325
14.2.4;11.2.4 Atmospheric Optical Depth;325
14.2.5;11.2.5 Single Scatter Albedo;330
14.2.6;11.2.6 Asymmetry Factor;331
14.2.7;11.2.7 Angstrom’s Exponent;331
14.3;11.3 Models and Measurements;331
14.4;11.4 Summary;346
14.5;References;347
15;12 Urban Forest Influences on Exposure to UV Radiation and Potential Consequences for Human Health;352
15.1;12.1 Introduction;353
15.2;12.2 Effects of Solar UV on Human Health and Epidemiology;354
15.2.1;12.2.1 Sunburn;354
15.2.2;12.2.2 Skin Types;357
15.2.3;12.2.3 Immune Function;357
15.2.4;12.2.4 Skin Cancers;357
15.2.4.1;12.2.4.1 Non-Melanoma Skin Cancers;358
15.2.4.2;12.2.4.2 Melanoma;358
15.2.5;12.2.5 Eye Diseases;360
15.2.6;12.2.6 Sunscreen Effectiveness;360
15.2.7;12.2.7 Positive Impacts;360
15.2.7.1;12.2.7.1 Vitamin D;361
15.2.7.2;12.2.7.2 Apparent Anti-Cancer Benefits of UV;364
15.3;12.3 UV Climatology;365
15.3.1;12.3.1 Ozone Trends;365
15.4;12.4 Urban Structural Influences;367
15.4.1;12.4.1 Sky Radiance and Diffuse Fraction;367
15.4.2;12.4.2 UV Reflectivity;368
15.4.3;12.4.3 Tree and Building Influences on UV;368
15.4.3.1;12.4.3.1 Measurements;368
15.4.3.2;12.4.3.2 Models of Tree Influences on UV-B Irradiance;373
15.4.4;12.4.4 Human Exposure;377
15.5;12.5 Public Health Information;378
15.6;12.6 Conclusions;379
15.7;References;381
16;13 Solar UV-B Radiation and Global Dimming: Effects on Plant Growth and UV-Shielding;391
16.1;13.1 Introduction;392
16.1.1;13.1.1 Global Dimming and UV-B: Potential Effects on Plants;392
16.1.2;13.1.2 Assessing Global Dimming and UV-B Effects on Plant Growth;393
16.2;13.2 Methods;395
16.2.1;13.2.1 Field Site;395
16.2.1.1;13.2.1.1 Experimental Plots;395
16.2.2;13.2.2 Structural and Biomass Measurements;396
16.2.3;13.2.3 UV-A Epidermal Transmittance Measurements;397
16.2.4;13.2.4 Solar UV and PAR Irradiance;397
16.2.5;13.2.5 Statistical Analyses;398
16.3;13.3 Results;398
16.3.1;13.3.1 UV-A Epidermal Transmittance;398
16.3.2;13.3.2 Dimming Effects on Biomass and Structure;402
16.4;13.4 Discussion;404
16.4.1;13.4.1 Global Dimming and UV-B Effects on Leaf Optical Properties;405
16.4.2;13.4.2 Global Dimming and UV-B Effects on Productivity;405
16.4.3;13.4.3 Ecological Implications;406
16.4.3.1;13.4.3.1 UV Exclusion Studies;407
16.5;13.5 Concluding Remarks;409
16.6;References;410
17;14 Effects of Ultraviolet-B Radiation and Its Interactions with Climate Change Factors on Agricultural Crop Growth and Yield;416
17.1;14.1 Introduction;417
17.2;14.2 Abiotic Stress Factors and Crop Yield;421
17.3;14.3 Crop Responses to UV-B and Other Climate Change Factors;422
17.3.1;14.3.1 Specific Effects of UV-B Radiation on Plants;423
17.3.1.1;14.3.1.1 Genetic (DNA) and Ultra-Structural Damage;425
17.3.1.2;14.3.1.2 Plant Photosynthesis;426
17.3.1.3;14.3.1.3 Plant Morphology and Architecture;426
17.3.1.4;14.3.1.4 Plant Development and Growth;427
17.3.1.5;14.3.1.5 Plant Yield and Quality;428
17.3.1.6;14.3.1.6 Pest Damage;429
17.3.2;14.3.2 Strategies for Protection against UV-B Radiation;431
17.3.2.1;14.3.2.1 Repair Mechanisms;431
17.3.2.2;14.3.2.2 Defense Mechanisms;432
17.3.3;14.3.3 Crop Response to Atmospheric CO2 Concentration;433
17.3.4;14.3.4 Crop Response to Temperature;434
17.3.5;14.3.5 Crop Response to Drought;435
17.3.6;14.3.6 Crop Response to Multiple Abiotic Stress Factors;437
17.4;14.4 Abiotic Stress Tolerance and Cultivar Screening Tools;440
17.5;14.5 Climate Change and Aerobiology and Public Health;443
17.6;14.6 Concluding Remarks;444
17.7;References;445
18;15 Assessment of DNA Damage as a Tool to Measure UV-B Tolerance in Soybean Lines Differing in Foliar Flavonoid Composition;458
18.1;15.1 Introduction;459
18.2;15.2 Materials and Methods;462
18.2.1;15.2.1 Plant Growth and UV Irradiation;462
18.2.2;15.2.2 Field Sampling;463
18.2.3;15.2.3 Analysis of Phenolics;464
18.2.4;15.2.4 Determination of DNA Lesions—Gel ElectrophoresisMethod;464
18.2.5;15.2.5 Determination of DNA Lesions—Monoclonal Antibody Method;467
18.2.6;15.2.6 Experimental Design and Statistical Analysis;467
18.3;15.3 Results and Discussion;467
18.3.1;15.3.1 Leaf Phenolics;467
18.3.2;15.3.2 DNA Damage;469
18.4;15.4 Conclusions;473
18.5;References;474
19;16 Physiological Impacts of Short-Term UV Irradiance Exposures on Cultivars of Glycine Max;479
19.1;16.1 Introduction;480
19.2;16.2 Materials and Methods;482
19.2.1;16.2.1 Plant Material and Greenhouse Growth Conditions;482
19.2.1.1;Greenhouse studies;482
19.2.1.2;Field study;483
19.2.2;16.2.2 UV Treatment;483
19.2.2.1;Greenhouse studies;483
19.2.2.2;Field study;484
19.2.3;16.2.3 UV Exposure Regimes;484
19.2.3.1;Greenhouse studies;484
19.2.3.2;Field study;486
19.2.4;16.2.4 Stomatal Conductance Measurements;487
19.2.5;16.2.5 Photosynthesis and Transpiration Measurements;488
19.2.6;16.2.6 Pigment Analyses;488
19.2.7;16.2.7 UV-B Absorbing Compounds;489
19.3;16.3 Results and Discussion;490
19.3.1;16.3.1 Stomatal Conductance;490
19.3.2;16.3.2 Transpiration;494
19.3.3;16.3.3 Photosynthesis;497
19.3.4;16.3.4 Water Use Efficiency;499
19.3.5;16.3.5 UV-B Absorbing Compounds and Leaf Pigments;499
19.4;16.4 Summary and Conclusions;502
19.5;References;504
20;17 UV-Effects on Young Seedlings of Soybean: Effectsin Early Development and Long-Term Effects;509
20.1;17.1 Introduction;509
20.1.1;Main Objectives;513
20.2;17.2 Results and Discussion;513
20.2.1;17.2.1 UV Effects on Early Development and Survival of Young Soybean;513
20.2.2;17.2.2 Surviving Soybean: the Affect on Seed Production;517
20.2.3;17.2.3 Assessment of Phenylpropanoids in Response to UV;519
20.3;17.3 Conclusions;520
20.4;17.4 Methods;521
20.4.1;17.4.1 Plant Materials and Accessions;521
20.4.2;17.4.2 Plant Growth and Preparation of Tissue;521
20.4.3;17.4.3 Chemicals;522
20.4.4;17.4.4 UV Radiation Sources and Treatments;522
20.4.5;17.4.5 Metabolome Studies;522
20.5;References;523
21;18 Characteristics of UV-B Radiation Tolerance in Broadleaf Trees in Southern USA;530
21.1;18.1 Introduction;531
21.2;18.2 Methodology;535
21.2.1;18.2.1 Plant Materials;535
21.2.2;18.2.2 Measuring Leaf Optical Properties;535
21.2.3;18.2.3 Measuring the Light Penetration and Distribution within Leaf Tissues;536
21.2.4;18.2.4 Scanning Electron Microscopy and Light Microscopy of Leaves;538
21.2.5;18.2.5 Measurements of UV-B Absorbing Compounds and Chlorophyll Concentrations;538
21.2.6;18.2.6 Statistical Analysis;539
21.3;18.3 Results and Discussion;539
21.3.1;18.3.1 Leaf Optical Properties;539
21.3.2;18.3.2 Depth of Light Penetration into Leaf Tissues;540
21.3.3;18.3.3 The Concentration of Leaf UV-B Absorbing Compounds;543
21.3.4;18.3.4 Correlations among the UV-B Related Variables within and among the Species;545
21.4;18.4 Conclusions;548
21.5;References;549
22;Index;552