Godbey An Introduction to Biotechnology

The Science, Technology and Medical Applications
1. Auflage 2014
ISBN: 978-1-908818-48-5
Verlag: Elsevier Science & Techn.
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: 6 - ePub Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, Band 24, 436 Seiten

Reihe: Woodhead Publishing Series in Biomedicine

An Introduction to Biotechnology is a biotechnology textbook aimed at undergraduates. It covers the basics of cell biology, biochemistry and molecular biology, and introduces laboratory techniques specific to the technologies addressed in the book; it addresses specific biotechnologies at both the theoretical and application levels.Biotechnology is a field that encompasses both basic science and engineering. There are currently few, if any, biotechnology textbooks that adequately address both areas. Engineering books are equation-heavy and are written in a manner that is very difficult for the non-engineer to understand. Numerous other attempts to present biotechnology are written in a flowery manner with little substance. The author holds one of the first PhDs granted in both biosciences and bioengineering. He is more than an author enamoured with the wow-factor associated with biotechnology; he is a practicing researcher in gene therapy, cell/tissue engineering, and other areas and has been involved with emerging technologies for over a decade. Having made the assertion that there is no acceptable text for teaching a course to introduce biotechnology to both scientists and engineers, the author committed himself to resolving the issue by writing his own. - The book is of interest to a wide audience because it includes the necessary background for understanding how a technology works. - Engineering principles are addressed, but in such a way that an instructor can skip the sections without hurting course content - The author has been involved with many biotechnologies through his own direct research experiences. The text is more than a compendium of information - it is an integrated work written by an author who has experienced first-hand the nuances associated with many of the major biotechnologies of general interest today.

W. T. Godbey is the Paul H. and Donna D. Assistant Professor in the Department of Chemical and Bimolecular Engineering at Tulane University. He received his B.S. in Mathematics from Southern Methodist University in 1988. After a successful period that involved starting his own software design and development company in Dallas, Texas, he joined the fields of science and engineering and earned his PhD as a National Science Foundation Graduate Fellow from the Institute for Biosciences and Bioengineering at Rice University in 2000. From 2000-2003 he was a postdoctoral fellow at Childrens Hospital, Boston and Harvard Medical School. He joined the Tulane University faculty in 2003.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Godbey, W. T.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Front Cover;1
2;An Introduction to Biotechnology: The science, technology and medical applications;4
3;Copyright;5
4;Contents;6
5;List of Figures;10
6;List of Tables;16
7;Preface;18
8;About the Author;20
9;Chapter 1. Membranes;22
9.1;1.1 . Membrane Lipids;22
9.2;1.2 . Cholesterol;26
9.3;1.3 . Membrane Proteins;27
9.4;Questions;28
10;Chapter 2. Proteins;30
10.1;2.1 . Amino Acids;30
10.1.1;2.1.1 . p K a ;33
10.2;2.2 . Protein Structure;36
10.2.1;2.2.1 . Primary Structure;36
10.2.2;2.2.2 . Secondary Structure;37
10.2.2.1;2.2.2.1 . Supersecondary Structure;40
10.2.3;2.2.3 . Tertiary Structure;41
10.2.4;2.2.4 . Quaternary Structure;41
10.3;2.3 . The Hydrophobic Effect;42
10.4;2.4 . A Return to Membranes;44
10.4.1;2.4.1 . Protein Movement Within the Plasma Membrane;45
10.4.2;2.4.2 . Restriction of Protein Movement Within the Plasma Membrane;47
10.4.3;2.4.3 . Protein Isolation Often Involves Detergents;47
10.5;Questions;53
10.6;Related Reading;54
11;Chapter 3: Cellular Transport;56
11.1;3.1 . Membrane Transporters;56
11.1.1;3.1.1 . The Sodium/Glucose Symporter;58
11.1.2;3.1.2 . Transporters That Control pH;58
11.1.2.1;3.1.2.1 . Examples of Passive Transport to Control pH;58
11.1.2.2;3.1.2.2 . Examples of Active Transport to Control pH: The Proton ATPases;61
11.1.2.3;3.1.2.3 . Lysosomes;63
11.1.3;3.1.3 . Another Active Transporter: The Sodium/Potassium ATPase;64
11.1.4;3.1.4 . Transporters can be Coupled: The Sodium-Driven Calcium Exchanger;65
11.1.5;3.1.5 . ABC Transporters;66
11.1.6;3.1.6 . Hydrophilic Molecule Transport and Electrochemical Gradients;66
11.1.6.1;3.1.6.1 . The Nernst Equation;67
11.2;3.2 . Vesicular Transporters: Endocytosis;68
11.2.1;3.2.1 . Phagocytosis;68
11.2.2;3.2.2 . Pinocytosis;72
11.2.3;3.2.3 . Endocytosis via Clathrin-Coated Pits;72
11.3;3.3 . Receptor Fates;75
11.3.1;3.3.1 . Receptor Recycling: The LDL Receptor;75
11.3.2;3.3.2 . Receptor and Ligand Recycling: The Transferrin Receptor;80
11.3.3;3.3.3 . Neither Receptor nor Ligand are Recycled: The Opioid Receptor;81
11.3.4;3.3.4 . Transcytosis;81
11.4;3.4 . Lysosomes Are for Degradation, But Are They Safe?;83
11.4.1;3.4.1 . Identification of Intracellular Vesicles;83
11.5;Questions;84
11.6;Related Reading;85
12;Chapter 4. Genes: The Blueprints for Proteins;86
12.1;4.1 . Nucleotides and Nucleic Acids;86
12.1.1;4.1.1 . The Phosphoribose Backbone;86
12.1.2;4.1.2 . Nucleotide Bases, Nucleosides, and Nucleotides;89
12.1.3;4.1.3 . DNA Is the Genetic Material;92
12.1.4;4.1.4 . Genomic DNA Is Double-stranded;95
12.1.5;4.1.5 . DNA Replication Is Semiconservative;97
12.2;4.2 . From Genes to Proteins;98
12.2.1;4.2.1 . Introduction to the Genetic Code;98
12.2.1.1;4.2.1.1 . Degeneracy and Wobble;99
12.2.1.1.1;4.2.1.1.1 . Ribosomes and Translation;99
12.2.1.1.2;4.2.1.1.2 . Back to Wobble;103
12.2.1.2;4.2.1.2 . Mutations and Their Effect on Translation;103
12.2.2;4.2.2 . Genes;103
12.2.2.1;4.2.2.1 . How Many Genes Are in the Human Genome?;105
12.2.2.2;4.2.2.2 . Phenotypes;106
12.2.3;4.2.3 . Transcription;109
12.2.3.1;4.2.3.1 . The Start of Transcription: RNA Polymerase Binds to DNA;109
12.2.3.1.1;4.2.3.1.1 . Prokaryotes;109
12.2.3.1.2;4.2.3.1.2 . Eukaryotes;110
12.2.3.1.2.1;4.2.3.1.2.1 . The Eukaryotic 5 ' mRNA Cap;111
12.2.3.1.2.2;4.2.3.1.2.2 . Splicing;111
12.2.3.1.2.3;4.2.3.1.2.3 . The Eukaryotic Poly(A) Tail;113
12.2.3.2;4.2.3.2 . Regulation of Transcription;115
12.2.3.2.1;4.2.3.2.1 . Promoters and Promoter Elements;116
12.2.3.2.1.1;4.2.3.2.1.1 . TATA Box;116
12.2.3.2.1.2;4.2.3.2.1.2 . CpG Islands;117
12.2.3.2.1.3;4.2.3.2.1.3 . GC Box;118
12.2.3.2.1.4;4.2.3.2.1.4 . CAAT Box;118
12.2.3.2.2;4.2.3.2.2 . Enhancers;119
12.2.3.2.3;4.2.3.2.3 . Silencers and Operators;121
12.2.4;4.2.4 . Translation;122
12.2.4.1;4.2.4.1 . Initiation of Translation in Eukaryotes;122
12.2.4.2;4.2.4.2 . Initiation of Translation in Prokaryotes;124
12.3;Questions;125
12.4;Related Reading;126
13;Chapter 5. Cell Growth;128
13.1;5.1 . The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle;128
13.1.1;5.1.1 . Phases of Mitosis;129
13.1.2;5.1.2 . Control of the Cell Cycle;132
13.2;5.2 . Growth Curves and Their Phases;135
13.2.1;5.2.1 . Growth Curve State—A Biotech Company Example;138
13.2.2;5.2.2 . Be Aware of the Lag Phase;139
13.2.3;5.2.3 . Cryptic Growth;140
13.2.4;5.2.4 . Diauxic Growth;141
13.3;5.3 . Mathematics of the Growth Curve;142
13.3.1;5.3.1 . Exponential Phase (Early Log);142
13.3.1.1;5.3.1.1 . Doubling time, indicated by t ½, is it the amount of time that it takes for cell mass (or cell number) t ...;142
13.3.2;5.3.2 . Deceleration Phase (Late Log);143
13.3.3;5.3.3 . Plateau Phase;145
13.3.4;5.3.4 . Death Phase;146
13.4;5.4 . Counting Cell Numbers;147
13.4.1;5.4.1 . Hemacytometer;147
13.4.2;5.4.2 . Agar Plates;150
13.4.3;5.4.3 . Cell Counters and Flow Cytometers;150
13.5;5.5 . Counting Cell Mass;151
13.5.1;5.5.1 . Packed Cell Volume;151
13.5.2;5.5.2 . Wet and Dry Weight;151
13.5.3;5.5.3 . Optical Density;153
13.6;5.6 . Scale-Up;153
13.7;Questions;158
13.8;Related Reading;163
14;Chapter 6. Microbial Killing;164
14.1;6.1 . The Gram Stain;164
14.2;6.2 . Microbial Resistance to Killing;167
14.3;6.3 . Sterilization, Disinfection, and Sanitization;169
14.3.1;6.3.1 . Sterilization;169
14.3.2;6.3.2 . Disinfection;171
14.3.3;6.3.3 . Sanitization;172
14.3.4;6.3.4 . Antiseptics;172
14.4;6.4 . Microbial Cell Death;173
14.4.1;6.4.1 . Death by Alcohol;174
14.4.2;6.4.2 . Antimicrobial Drugs;176
14.4.2.1;6.4.2.1 . Targeting the Cell Wall;176
14.4.2.2;6.4.2.2 . Targeting Translation;179
14.4.2.3;6.4.2.3 . Targeting Nucleic Acid Synthesis;180
14.4.2.4;6.4.2.4 . Targeting Cell Membranes;181
14.5;Questions;183
14.6;Related Reading;184
15;Chapter 7. Cell Culture and the Eukaryotic Cells Used in Biotechnology;186
15.1;7.1 . Adherent Cells Versus Nonadherent Cells;186
15.2;7.2 . Primary Cells, Cancer Cells, and Cell Lines;186
15.2.1;7.2.1 . Primary Cells;187
15.2.2;7.2.2 . Cancer Cells;190
15.2.3;7.2.3 . Cell Lines;191
15.3;Questions;193
15.4;Related Reading;193
16;Chapter 8. Fluorescence;194
16.1;8.1 . Stokes' Experiments;194
16.2;8.2 . Fluorophore Properties;198
16.2.1;8.2.1 . Excitation and Emission;198
16.2.2;8.2.2 . More Descriptors of a Fluorophore;201
16.3;8.3 . Fluorescence Detection;202
16.4;8.4 . FRET;204
16.5;Questions;206
16.6;Related Reading;207
17;Chapter 9. Locating Transcriptional Control Regions: Deletion Analysis;208
17.1;9.1 . An Example of Deletion Analysis;209
17.2;Questions;211
18;Chapter 10. Agarose Gels;214
18.1;10.1 . Application of Agarose Gels: Gel Shift;218
18.2;10.2 . Application of Agarose Gels: DNA Footprinting;218
18.2.1;10.2.1 . A More-Detailed Example;219
18.3;10.3 . Application of Agarose Gels: Restriction Analysis;223
18.4;Questions;224
18.5;Related Reading;227
19;Chapter 11. The Polymerase Chain Reaction;228
19.1;11.1 . Melt;228
19.2;11.2 . Anneal;229
19.3;11.3 . Extend;233
19.4;11.4 . PCR Loops;234
19.5;11.5 . An Application of Traditional PCR;236
19.6;11.6 . Traditional Versus Real-Time PCR;240
19.6.1;11.6.1 . Problems Specific to Traditional PCR;241
19.7;11.7 . Real-Time PCR;243
19.7.1;11.7.1 . SYBR Green;243
19.7.1.1;11.7.1.1 . The Fold Difference: What it Means Versus What it Implies;249
19.7.1.2;11.7.1.2 . Primer Efficiency;251
19.7.2;11.7.2 . Probes;252
19.8;Questions;254
19.9;Related Reading;257
20;Chapter 12. Genetic Engineering;258
20.1;12.1 . Plasmid Architecture;258
20.2;12.2 . Molecular Cloning;260
20.2.1;12.2.1 . Cutting (and Ligating) Sticky Ends;261
20.2.2;12.2.2 . Blunt-End Ligation;266
20.2.3;12.2.3 . Direct Extraction of a Gene from the Genome;270
20.3;12.3 . A Single Plasmid Is Not Enough;271
20.3.1;12.3.1 . Plasmid Amplification;273
20.3.2;12.3.2 . The Plasmid Prep Procedure, or, the 12-Step Program for Plasmid Recovery;280
20.4;12.4 . Spectrophotometry;286
20.4.1;12.4.1 . Beer’s Law;286
20.4.2;12.4.2 . Determination of DNA Concentration;288
20.4.3;12.4.3 . Determination of DNA Purity;289
20.5;12.5 . What We Have Learned so Far;290
20.6;Questions;291
20.7;Related Reading;295
21;Chapter 13. Gene Delivery;296
21.1;13.1 . Gene Delivery Vehicles: An Overview;297
21.2;13.2 . Gene Methods in Greater Detail;298
21.2.1;13.2.1 . Viral Delivery Methods;298
21.2.1.1;13.2.1.1 . Retrovirus;299
21.2.1.2;13.2.1.2 . Adenovirus;301
21.2.1.3;13.2.1.3 . Adeno-Associated Virus;303
21.2.1.4;13.2.1.4 . Herpes Virus;303
21.2.1.5;13.2.1.5 . Baculovirus;304
21.2.2;13.2.2 . Physical Delivery Methods;307
21.2.2.1;13.2.2.1 . Gene Gun;307
21.2.2.2;13.2.2.2 . Microinjection;308
21.2.2.3;13.2.2.3 . Electroporation;310
21.2.3;13.2.3 . Chemical Delivery Methods;311
21.2.3.1;13.2.3.1 . Polymers;311
21.2.3.1.1;13.2.3.1.1 . PEI;311
21.2.3.1.2;13.2.3.1.2 . Dendrimers;313
21.2.3.1.3;13.2.3.1.3 . Chitosan;317
21.2.3.1.4;13.2.3.1.4 . PLL;318
21.2.3.2;13.2.3.2 . Lipids;318
21.2.3.2.1;13.2.3.2.1 . Liposome Geometry;319
21.2.3.2.2;13.2.3.2.2 . Monovalent Cationic Lipids;319
21.2.3.2.2.1;13.2.3.2.2.1 . DOTMA;319
21.2.3.2.2.2;13.2.3.2.2.2 . DOTAP;322
21.2.3.2.2.3;13.2.3.2.2.3 . DC-Chol;323
21.2.3.2.3;13.2.3.2.3 . Multivalent Cationic Lipids;324
21.2.3.2.3.1;13.2.3.2.3.1 . DOSPA;324
21.2.3.2.3.2;13.2.3.2.3.2 . DOGS;324
21.2.3.2.4;13.2.3.2.4 . Neutral Helper Lipids;324
21.2.3.2.4.1;13.2.3.2.4.1 . DOPE and DOPC;324
21.3;13.3 . Preparation of Nonviral Gene Delivery Complexes;325
21.4;Questions;329
21.5;General Gene Delivery;330
21.6;Cloning;330
21.7;Viral Delivery Methods;330
21.8;Physical Delivery Methods;331
21.9;Chemical Delivery Methods—PEI;331
21.10;Chemical Delivery Methods—Dendrimers;331
21.11;Chemical Delivery Methods—Chitosan;332
21.12;Chemical Delivery Methods—PLL;332
21.13;Chemical Delivery Methods—Liposomes;332
22;Chapter 14. RNAi;334
22.1;14.1 . Cosuppression;334
22.2;14.2 . RNA Interference;337
22.3;14.3 . miRNA;340
22.4;Questions;342
22.5;Related Reading;342
23;Chapter 15. DNA Fingerprinting;344
23.1;15.1 . Older DNA Fingerprinting Uses RFLPs;344
23.2;15.2 . Newer DNA Fingerprinting Uses STRs;346
23.3;Questions;350
23.4;Related Reading;350
24;Chapter 16. Fermentation, Beer, and Biofuels;352
24.1;16.1 . Glycolysis;352
24.1.1;16.1.1 . The Embden-Meyerhof Pathway;352
24.1.2;16.1.2 . The Entner-Douderoff Pathway;355
24.2;16.2 . Fermentation;356
24.3;16.3 . The Production of Beer;360
24.3.1;16.3.1 . Malt;360
24.3.2;16.3.2 . Wort;361
24.3.3;16.3.3 . Yeast Cultures;362
24.3.4;16.3.4 . Skunky Beer;365
24.4;16.4 . Fermentation to Produce Biofuels;366
24.4.1;16.4.1 . Ethanol: A Biofuel with Problems;366
24.4.2;16.4.2 . Biobutanol;367
24.4.3;16.4.3 . Cellulose;370
24.5;Questions;371
24.6;Related Reading;372
25;Chapter 17. Stem Cells and Tissue Engineering;374
25.1;17.1 . Potential;376
25.2;17.2 . An Alternate View of Stem Cells;377
25.3;17.3 . Using Stem Cells;378
25.4;17.4 . Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine;379
25.5;17.5 . Bioreactors;382
25.5.1;17.5.1 . Incubators;382
25.5.2;17.5.2 . Static and Dynamic Cultures;384
25.6;17.6 . Polymeric Scaffolds;386
25.6.1;17.6.1 . Homopolymers;388
25.6.2;17.6.2 . Copolymers;390
25.7;17.7 . Bringing it all Together: A Tissue Engineering Application;391
25.8;Questions;392
25.9;Related Reading;393
26;Chapter 18. Transgenics;396
26.1;18.1 . Ice-Minus Bacteria;396
26.2;18.2 . Bt Plants;396
26.3;18.3 . Herbicide Resistance;398
26.4;18.4 . Tomatoes;400
26.4.1;18.4.1 . The Flavr Savr Tomato;400
26.4.2;18.4.2 . Safeway Double-Concentrated Tomato Puree;402
26.5;18.5 . Rice;404
26.5.1;18.5.1 . Miracle Rice;404
26.5.2;18.5.2 . Golden Rice;407
26.6;18.6 . Terminators and Traitors;410
26.6.1;18.6.1 . Terminators;410
26.6.2;18.6.2 . Traitors;411
26.7;Questions;412
26.8;Related Reading;413
27;Chapter 19. Patents and Licenses;414
27.1;19.1 . Types of Patents;414
27.2;19.2 . Licenses;417
27.3;19.3 . After a License Is Granted;420
27.3.1;19.3.1 . The Inventor Will Work with the Licensee After the Patent Has Been Licensed;420
27.3.2;19.3.2 . Remuneration;420
27.3.3;19.3.3 . If the License Is Released Back to the Inventor;422
27.4;Questions;422
28;Index;424

Leseproben

List of Figures

Figure 1.1 The eukaryotic plasma membrane 2

Figure 1.2 The structure of glycerol 2

Figure 1.3 The structure of phosphatidic acid 3

Figure 1.4 Common phospholipids found in the plasma membrane 3

Figure 1.5 The structure of sphingomyelin 4

Figure 1.6 Distribution of membrane phospholipids 5

Figure 1.7 The structure of cholesterol 6

Figure 1.8 Cholesterol fits between adjacent phospholipids 6

Figure 2.1 General structure of an amino acid 10

Figure 2.2 l- and d-forms of the general amino acid structure 10

Figure 2.3 structures of the 20 common amino acids 11

Figure 2.4 Ionization states of glycine 14

Figure 2.5 Ionization states of lysine 15

Figure 2.6 Amino acid polymerization reaction 16

Figure 2.7 Amino acid placement and interactions in the alpha helix 17

Figure 2.8 Beta pleated sheets 18

Figure 2.9 Beta turn 19

Figure 2.10 Proline in cis and trans conformations 20

Figure 2.11 the hydrophobic effect 21

Figure 2.12 A protein active site 22

Figure 2.13 Transmembrane proteins 23

Figure 2.14 Membrane protein migration 25

Figure 2.15 Barriers to membrane protein migration 27

Figure 2.16 Structures: soap versus detergent 28

Figure 2.17 General structure of a surfactant and a micelle 29

Figure 2.18 The structure of Triton X-100 36

Figure 3.1 Relative membrane permeabilities 36

Figure 3.2 Symport, antiport, active and passive transport 36

Figure 3.3 The mechanism of the sodium/glucose symporter 38

Figure 3.4 Examples of transporters that control cytosolic pH 40

Figure 3.5 Actions of two proton ATPases 41

Figure 3.6 A cell with labeled lysosomes 42

Figure 3.7 The sodium/potassium ATPase 43

Figure 3.8 The sodium-driven calcium exchanger, and an active Ca2 + transporter 44

Figure 3.9 IgG structure 48

Figure 3.10 Phagocytosis 50

Figure 3.11 A triskelion 52

Figure 3.12 Clathrin-coated pits 53

Figure 3.13 Structure of an LDL complex 56

Figure 3.14 Receptor recycling: the LDL receptor 57

Figure 3.15 Reasons for poor cholesterol uptake 58

Figure 3.16 Receptor recycling: the transferrin receptor 59

Figure 3.17 Transcytosis 61

Figure 4.1 The structures of ribose, phosphoribose, and an RNA dinucleotide 66

Figure 4.2 Structures of NMP, dNMP, and NTP 68

Figure 4.3 RNA polymerization 69

Figure 4.4 Structures of the most common nucleotide bases 70

Figure 4.5 The structure of the trinucleotide CTG 72

Figure 4.6 Summary of the Hershey-Chase experiments 73

Figure 4.7 DNA base pairing 74

Figure 4.8 dsDNA melting temperatures 75

Figure 4.9 Summary of the Meselson-Stahl experiments 76

Figure 4.10 The genetic code 79

Figure 4.11 Schematic of a tRNA molecule and its anticodon 80

Figure 4.12 Schematic of the ribosome with E, P, and A sites 80

Figure 4.13 Schematic of ribosomal interactions with tRNA during translation 81

Figure 4.14 Logical components of a gene 83

Figure 4.15 The number of genes in the human genome 85

Figure 4.16 Structures of the H antigen 86

Figure 4.17 Blood types 87

Figure 4.18 Structure of the 5’ RNA cap 91

Figure 4.19 Steps in the creation of the 5’ RNA cap 92

Figure 4.20 Splicing, or the removal of introns from eukaryotic RNA 93

Figure 4.21 The eukaryotic poly(A) tail 94

Figure 4.22 The eukaryotic transcription machinery 99

Figure 4 Aside: Ether, ester, and phosphodiester structures 67

Figure 5.1 Schematic of the cell cycle (S, M, and G phases) 108

Figure 5.2 Schematic of the cell cycle (IPMAT phases) 108

Figure 5.3 Chromosomal locations during mitosis 109

Figure 5.4 Centromere, kinetochore, kinteochore microtubules, and mitotic spindle 110

Figure 5.5 Cell cycle checkpoints 111

Figure 5.6 Quantitation of DNA concentration during the cell cycle 113

Figure 5.7 A growth curve 115

Figure 5.8 Growth curves to consider 118

Figure 5.9 Cryptic growth 119

Figure 5.10 Diauxic growth 120

Figure 5.11 Growth curves for different carbon-source affinities 123

Figure 5.12 A hemacytometer 126

Figure 5.13 A hemacytometer with cells for counting 127

Figure 5.14 Schematic of an agar plate with colonies 129

Figure 5.15 Schematic of a cell counter 131

Figure 5.16 A spinner flask 135

Figure 6.1 Sketch of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria 144

Figure 6.2 The structure of crystal violet 145

Figure 6.3 Crystal violet without and with a mordant 145

Figure 6.4 Gram stain results 146

Figure 6.5 A fly trapped in amber 148

Figure 6.6 Sterile vs. disinfected vs. sanitized 149

Figure 6.7 The structure of ethylene oxide 150

Figure 6.8 A sterilized liquid for drinking? 150

Figure 6.9 The structures of several common alcohols 154

Figure 6.10 Potential targets for antimicrobial drugs 155

Figure 6.11 NAM and NAG structures 156

Figure 6.12 NAM and NAG crosslinking in the prokaryotic cell wall 157

Figure 6.13 How folate is used in purine synthesis 159

Figure 6.14 The structures of PABA, sulfa drugs, and folic acid 160

Figure 6.15 The structure of polymyxin B 161

Figure 7.1 An RGD sequence 166

Figure 7.2 Okazaki fragments 168

Figure 7.3 Telomeres, as detected by FISH 169

Figure 7.4 Normal vs. cancer cells 171

Figure 8.1 Illustration of one of Stokes’ experiments 174

Figure 8.2 Illustration of one of Stokes’ experiments 174

Figure 8.3 Illustration of one of Stokes’ experiments...