Hawkes Science of Microscopy

1. Auflage 2008
ISBN: 978-0-387-49762-4
Verlag: Springer-Verlag
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: Adobe DRM (»Systemvoraussetzungen)

E-Book, Englisch, 1322 Seiten

New forms of imaging in science have nearly always led to major advances, especially at the nanoscale, and the pace of these developments has increased dramatically in recent decades. Many new types of microscopes have joined the traditional light microscope and the transmission and scanning electron microscopes during the past two decades. In the present volumes, a group of experts present comprehensive reviews of these new instruments and new versions of the older ones as well as associated techniques and draw attention to their principal areas of application. Numerous subjects are benefiting from these new tools, including semiconductor physics, medicine, molecular biology, the nanoworld in general, magnetism, and ferroelectricity. Science of Microscopy will be an indispensable guide to a wide range of scientists in university laboratories as well as to engineers and scientists in industrial R&D departments.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Hawkes, P.W.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Preface;5
1.1;References;11
1.2;References;11
2;Contents;13
3;Contributors;15
4;IMAGING WITH ELECTRONS;19
4.1;Atomic Resolution Transmission Electron Microscopy;20
4.1.1;1 Introduction and Historical Context;20
4.1.2;2 Essential Theory;25
4.1.3;3 Instrumentation;46
4.1.4;4 Exit-Wave Reconstruction;60
4.1.5;5 Image Simulation;68
4.1.6;6 Conclusions and Future Prospects;74
4.2;Scanning Transmission Electron Microscopy;82
4.2.1;1. Introduction;82
4.2.2;2. The STEM Probe;86
4.2.3;3. Coherent CBED and Ronchigrams;90
4.2.4;4. Bright-Field Imaging and Reciprocity;95
4.2.5;5. Annular Dark-Field Imaging;99
4.2.6;6. Electron Energy Loss Spectroscopy;114
4.2.7;7. X-Ray Analysis and Other Detected Signals in the STEM;124
4.2.8;8. Electron Optics and Column Design;126
4.2.9;9. Electron Sources;131
4.2.10;10. Resolution Limits and Aberration Correction;134
4.2.11;11. Conclusions;142
4.3;Scanning Electron Microscopy;150
4.3.1;1 Introduction;150
4.3.2;2 Conventional Scanning Electron Microscopy;156
4.3.3;3 Field Emission Scanning Electron Microscopy;226
4.3.4;4 Scanning Electron Microscopy at Elevated Pressure;254
4.3.5;5 Ultrahigh Vacuum Scanning Electron Microscopy in Surface Science;262
4.3.6;6 Microanalysis in Scanning Electron Microscopy;263
4.3.7;7 Crystal Structure Analysis by Electron Backscatter Diffraction;269
4.4;Analytical Electron Microscopy;290
4.4.1;1 Introduction;290
4.4.2;2 Instrumentation;300
4.4.3;3 Fundamentals;327
4.4.4;4 Quantification;348
4.4.5;5 Resolution in Microanalysis;365
4.4.6;6 Elemental Mapping;375
4.4.7;7 Detection Limits in Microanalysis;391
4.4.8;8 Energy Loss Fine Structures;401
4.5;High-Speed Electron Microscopy;423
4.5.1;1 What Is High-Speed Electron Microscopy?;423
4.5.2;2 Technologies of DTEM;424
4.5.3;3 Limitations;438
4.5.4;4 DTEM Applications;450
4.5.5;5 Future;452
4.5.6;6 Conclusions;453
4.6;In Situ Transmission Electron Microscopy;462
4.6.1;1 A Working Defi nition of in situ Transmission Electron Microscopy;462
4.6.2;2 Phase Transformations;464
4.6.3;3 Surface Reactions and Crystal Growth;480
4.6.4;4 Magnetic, Ferroelectric, and Superconducting Materials;493
4.6.5;5 Elastic and Plastic Deformation;503
4.6.6;6 Correlation of Structural and Electrical Properties of Materials;517
4.6.7;7 Liquid Phase Processes;522
4.6.8;8 Ion and Electron Beam-Induced Processes;527
4.6.9;9 Outlook;534
4.7;Cryoelectron Tomography (CET);552
4.7.1;1 Introduction;552
4.7.2;2 Three-Dimensional Cryoelectron Microscopy;555
4.7.3;3 Major Difficulties in Cryoelectron Tomography;564
4.7.4;4 Perspectives: New Strategies and Developments;606
4.8;LEEM and SPLEEM;622
4.8.1;1 Introduction;622
4.8.2;2 Electron Beam– Specimen Interactions;623
4.8.3;3 Instrumentation;631
4.8.4;4 Electron Optics;636
4.8.5;5 Contrast;641
4.8.6;6 Applications;647
4.8.7;7 Spin-Polarized LEEM ( SPLEEM);659
4.9;Photoemission Electron Microscopy ( PEEM);674
4.9.1;1 Introduction;674
4.9.2;2 X-Ray PEEM;675
4.9.3;3 Uncorrected PEEM Microscopes;681
4.9.4;4 Aberration- Corrected PEEM Microscopes;688
4.9.5;5 Application: Magnetic Domain Imaging;695
4.9.6;6 Time-Resolved Microscopy;703
4.9.7;7 Conclusion;707
4.10;Aberration Correction;713
4.10.1;1 Introduction;713
4.10.2;2 Types of Aberration;714
4.10.3;3 Aberration Correction;723
4.10.4;4 Concluding Remarks;745
4.10.5;5 Appendix I;746
5;IMAGING WITH PHOTONS;765
5.1;Two-Photon Excitation Fluorescence Microscopy;766
5.1.1;1 Introduction;766
5.1.2;2 Brief Chronological Notes;768
5.1.3;3 Basic Principles on Confocal and Two-Photon Excitation of Fluorescent Molecules;769
5.1.4;4 Two-Photon Excitation;778
5.1.5;5 Fluorescent Molecules under TPE Regime;780
5.1.6;6 Optical Consequences of TPE;782
5.1.7;7 The Optical Setup;784
5.1.8;8 Conclusion;789
5.2;Nanoscale Resolution in Far-Field Fluorescence Microscopy;805
5.2.1;1 Introduction;805
5.2.2;2 The Resolution Limit;806
5.2.3;3 Axial Resolution Improvement by Aperture Enlargement: 4Pi Microscopy and Related Approaches;810
5.2.4;4 Breaking the Diffraction Barrier;826
5.2.5;5 Conclusion;843
5.3;Principles and Applications of Zone Plate X- Ray Microscopes;850
5.3.1;1 Introduction;850
5.3.2;2 Fresnel Zone Plates;859
5.3.3;3 X-Ray Microscopes;877
5.3.4;4 Applications;907
5.3.5;5 Conclusion;920
6;NEAR-FIELD SCANNING PROBES;942
6.1;Scanning Probe Microscopy in Materials Science;943
6.1.1;1 Introduction;943
6.1.2;2 Imaging at Atomic Resolution with Force Interactions;944
6.1.3;3 Imaging Properties: Advanced SPM Techniques;958
6.1.4;4 Future Trends;972
6.2;Scanning Tunneling Microscopy in Surface Science;983
6.2.1;1 Introduction;983
6.2.2;2 Basic Principles of STM Imaging;984
6.2.3;3 Tunneling Spectroscopy;996
6.2.4;4 STM at High and Low Temperatures;1010
6.2.5;5 Heterostructures and Buried Interfaces: BEEM, Quantum Size Effects, and Cross- Sectional STM;1021
6.2.6;6 STM Image Simulation;1030
6.3;Atomic Force Microscopy in the Life Sciences;1039
6.3.1;1 Introduction;1039
6.3.2;2 Instrumentation and Imaging;1044
6.3.3;3 Sample Preparation;1066
6.3.4;4 Imaging and Locally Probing Macromolecular and Cellular Samples: Examples;1072
6.4;Low-Temperature Scanning Tunneling Microscopy;1084
6.4.1;1 Introduction;1084
6.4.2;2 Design Principals;1088
6.4.3;3 Applications;1095
7;HOLOGRAPHIC AND LENSLESS MODES;1153
7.1;Electron Holography;1154
7.1.1;1 Introduction;1154
7.1.2;2 Measurement of Mean Inner Potential and Sample Thickness;1161
7.1.3;3 Measurement of Magnetic Fields;1164
7.1.4;4 Measurement of Electrostatic Fields;1185
7.1.5;5 High-Resolution Electron Holography;1195
7.1.6;6 Alternative Forms of Electron Holography;1197
7.1.7;7 Discussion and Conclusion;1202
7.2;Diffractive (Lensless) Imaging;1209
7.2.1;1 Introduction;1209
7.2.2;2 History;1210
7.2.3;3 Objects, Images, and Diffraction Patterns: Validity Domains of Approximations;1214
7.2.4;4 The HIO Algorithm and Its Variants;1218
7.2.5;5 Experimental Results;1224
7.2.6;6 Iterated Projections;1232
7.2.7;7 Coherence Requirements for CDI: Resolution;1234
7.2.8;8 Computer Processing Demands;1236
7.2.9;9 Summary;1237
7.3;The Notion of Resolution;1241
7.3.1;1 Introduction;1241
7.3.2;2 Classical Two-Point Resolution;1242
7.3.3;3 Resolution in the Spatial Frequency Domain: Diffraction Limit and Superresolution;1243
7.3.4;4 Deterministic Model-Based Resolution;1249
7.3.5;5 Statistical Model-Based Resolution;1253
7.3.6;6 Ultimate Model-Based Resolution;1271
7.3.7;7 Discussion and Conclusions;1273
8;Index;1279