Heitmeyer / Haupt / Malthaner Control of Violence

Historical and International Perspectives on Violence in Modern Societies
1. Auflage 2010
ISBN: 978-1-4419-0383-9
Verlag: Springer-Verlag
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: Adobe DRM (»Systemvoraussetzungen)

E-Book, Englisch, 622 Seiten

The Control of Violence in Modern Society, starts from the hypothesis that in modern society we will face an increasing loss of control over certain phenomena of violence. This leads to unpredictable escalations and violence can no longer be contained adequately by the relevant control regimes, such as police, state surveillance institutions, national repression apparatuses and international law. However, before investigating this hypothesis from an internationally and historically comparative perspective, the terms and 'tools' for this undertaking have to be rendered more precisely. Since both 'control' and 'violence' are all but clear-cut terms but rather highly debatable and contested concepts that may take multiple connotations. The main question is whether an increase in certain forms of violence can be explained by the failure or, in turn, 'overeffectiveness' of certain control mechanisms. It is asked, for instance, which contribution religion can make to limit violence and, in turn, which destructive potential religion might have in its fundamentalist form. Moreover, the concept of individual self-control as well as social institutions and strategies of collective disengagement and de-radicalization are investigated with regard to their potential for controlling violence. The Control of Violence in Modern Society concludes with a re-examination of the hypothesis of a loss of control by specifying in what cases and under which circumstances we can speak of a loss of control over violence.

Wilhelm Heitmeyer (Dr. phil.) is Professor of Socialization and Director of the Institute for Interdisciplinary Research on Conflict and Violence at Bielefeld University. His research interests concentrate on violence, social disintegration, right-wing extremism, and ethnic-cultural conflicts. His publications include International Handbook of Violence Research (co-edited with John Hagan); Rechtsextremistische Orientierungen bei Jugendlichen [Right-Wing Extremism Among Young People] (1987); Gewalt [Violence] (1995); Bedrohte Stadtgesellschaften [Urban Societies Under Threat] (co-edited with Reimund Anhut) (2000). He is Editor-in Chief of the International Journal of Conflict and Violence (with D. Massey et al.). He is organizer of the international research group 'Control of Violence' at the Center for Interdisciplinary Research (ZiF), Bielefeld University (with Heinz Gerhard-Haupt/ Bielefeld, Florence). Heinz-Gerhard Haupt (Dr. phil.) is Professor of Social History at Bielefeld University and Head of the department of history and civilization at the European University Institute in Florence, Italy. His work focuses on social History and political History of Modern Europe, Methodology of Comparative History. His current research projects encompass History of Political Violence in 19th and 20th Century Europe, History of Consumption in 19th and 20th Century Europe, History of Social Movements and Classes: The First of May in Europe after 1945, Comparative History of European Nationalism: Nation and Religion in 19th and 20th Century. Recent publications include Neue Politikgeschichte [New political history](with Ute Frevert, eds.) (2005); Exklusion und Partizipation [Exclusion and particpiation] (with C. Gusy, Eds.); Terrorismus in der Bundesrepublik: Medien, Staat und Subkulturen in den 1970er Jahren [Terrorism in the Federal Republic of Germany: Media, state, and subcultures] (with K. Weinhauer and J. Requate, Eds.) (2006). He is organizer of the international research group 'Control of Violence' at the Center for Interdisciplinary Research (ZiF), Bielefeld University (with Wilhelm Heitmeyer/ Bielefeld).

Autoren/Hrsg.

Heitmeyer, Wilhelm

Haupt, Heinz-Gerhard

Malthaner, Stefan

Kirschner, Andrea

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Preface;5
2;Contents;7
3;Contributors;10
4;About the Editors;13
5;Part I Introduction;15
5.1;Control of Violence---An Analytical Framework;16
5.1.1;1 The Social Order and the Problem of Controlling Violence;16
5.1.2;2 Violence and Its Ambivalence;18
5.1.3;3 Toward an Understanding of Control;19
5.1.3.1;3.1 Etymological Origins;19
5.1.3.2;3.2 Sociological and Historical Perspectives on Control;20
5.1.3.2.1;3.2.1 Control as State Repression or Social Self-Regulation: Classical Models of the Social Order (Hobbes, Scottish Enlightenment);20
5.1.3.2.2;3.2.2 Power and Rule, Punishment and Discipline: Control of Violence in Modern Societies (Weber, Elias, Foucault);22
5.1.3.2.3;3.2.3 Control, Deviance, and Violence: The Concept of Social Control;25
5.1.3.3;3.3 The Paradigm of Control: Fields of Action, Forms, and Mechanisms of Control;28
5.1.3.3.1;3.3.1 Two Dimensions of Control;29
5.1.3.3.2;3.3.2 The Field of Action of Control;29
5.1.3.3.3;3.3.3 Forms and Styles of Control;32
5.1.3.3.4;3.3.4 Strategies and Mechanisms of Control;33
5.1.4;4 Relationships of Control and Violence and the Ambivalence of Violence Control;34
5.1.4.1;4.1 Losses of Control as Prerequisites for the Genesis of Violence;34
5.1.4.2;4.2 Dilemmas of Control: Control Measures as Triggers or Escalators of Violence;35
5.1.4.3;4.3 Violence as the Cause of Loss of Control;36
5.1.4.4;4.4 The Ambivalence of Violence Control;37
5.1.5;5 Shifts in Perception Patterns and the Social Conditions of Violence Control;38
5.1.6;6 Empirical Fields of the Relationship Between Violence and Control;41
5.1.6.1;6.1 School Shootings;41
5.1.6.2;6.2 Terrorism;42
5.1.6.3;6.3 Violence in States in Crisis;44
5.1.7;7 Structure of the Book;45
5.1.7.1;7.1 Topics and Objectives of This Volume;45
5.1.7.2;7.2 Mechanisms and Strategies of Violence Control;46
5.1.7.3;7.3 The Micro-level: School Shootings;48
5.1.7.4;7.4 The Meso-level: Terrorism;49
5.1.7.5;7.5 The Macro-level: Violence in States in Crisis;51
5.1.8;References;53
6;Part II Mechanisms and Strategies of Violence Control;58
6.1;An End to Violence;59
6.1.1;1 The Subject and Violence;59
6.1.1.1;1.1 Objectivity and Subjectivity;59
6.1.1.2;1.2 Classical Approaches;60
6.1.1.3;1.3 The Subject of Violence;61
6.1.2;2 Violence and Globalization;63
6.1.2.1;2.1 The End of the Cold War;63
6.1.2.2;2.2 The End of the Industrial Age;65
6.1.3;3 An End to Violence: The Victims Perspective;67
6.1.3.1;3.1 Three Registers;67
6.1.3.2;3.2 Dealing with Threefold Destruction;69
6.1.3.3;3.3 Acknowledgment in a ''Global'' World;71
6.1.4;4 Dealing with the Violent Player: Subject Policies?;72
6.1.5;References;75
6.2;Cross-National Homicide Trends in the Latter Decades of the Twentieth Century: Losses and Gains in Institutional Control?;76
6.2.1;1 Introduction;76
6.2.2;2 Data Sources, Variables, and Measures;78
6.2.3;3 Describing Systematic Trends in Homicide;81
6.2.3.1;3.1 The Technique of Spline Regression Modeling;81
6.2.3.2;3.2 Results: Cross-National Patterns in Homicide Trends;87
6.2.4;4 Dynamic Modeling of Homicide Rates;90
6.2.4.1;4.1 The ''Family Legitimacy'' Thesis;90
6.2.4.2;4.2 Statistical Procedures;91
6.2.4.3;4.3 Results;93
6.2.5;5 Summary and Conclusions;95
6.2.6;6 Appendix: Nations Included in the Sample;98
6.2.7;References;98
6.3;Self-Control and the Management of Violence;101
6.3.1;1 Self-Control Theory;102
6.3.2;2 The Research Evidence;103
6.3.3;3 Uncertainties;104
6.3.4;4 Toward a More Adequate Theory;105
6.3.5;5 Potential Weaknesses;105
6.3.5.1;5.1 Neglect of Contingencies;106
6.3.5.2;5.2 Limited Hegemony;107
6.3.5.3;5.3 Sources of Self-Control May Be Incomplete or Mistaken;108
6.3.5.4;5.4 Causal Mechanism May Be Incorrect;111
6.3.5.5;5.5 Perhaps Too Individualistically Oriented;113
6.3.5.5.1;5.5.1 Aggregated Self-Control of Individuals;114
6.3.5.5.2;5.5.2 Emergent Structures and Processes;115
6.3.6;6 Assumptions on Which Self-Control Theory Is Based May Be Misleading;121
6.3.7;7 Conclusion;124
6.3.8;References;124
6.4;Self-Control, Conscience, and Criminal Violence: Some Preliminary Considerations;130
6.4.1;1 Modifying and Expanding the Concept of Self-Control;131
6.4.2;2 Self-Esteem, Guilt, Shame, and Aggression;137
6.4.3;3 Some Additional Reflections on the Concept of Conscience;142
6.4.4;4 Concluding Remarks;149
6.4.5;References;150
6.5;Reading Religious Violence in Terms of Theories of Social Action;154
6.5.1;1 On the Connection Between Monotheism and Violence;155
6.5.2;2 American Scenarios of Violence: From Jonestown to Waco and from Waco to the Freemen of Montana;157
6.5.3;3 Scenarios of Religious Violence in the Middle East Conflict;159
6.5.3.1;3.1 Israel's Wars of Redemption and Settlements in the Occupied Territories;160
6.5.3.2;3.2 Struggling for Palestine as Islamic Waqf;162
6.5.3.3;3.3 American Protestants Looking for a Restoration of Israel in Palestine;163
6.5.3.4;3.4 The Semantics of ''Resistance Fighter'' Versus ''Terrorist'';164
6.5.3.5;3.5 September 11, 2001: War in the Way of God (Ghazwa);165
6.5.3.6;3.6 The US War Against Islamic Networks;166
6.5.4;4 Options Beyond the Cycle of Violence;168
6.5.5;5 Conclusion;169
6.5.6;References;170
6.6;Religion and Control of Violence;173
6.6.1;1 Introduction;173
6.6.2;2 Affect Modulation and Control of Violence;176
6.6.3;3 Armed Violence and Theological Legitimacy;179
6.6.4;4 Religion and Governability: Religion as an Agent of Integration in the Age of Multiculturalism;183
6.6.5;5 Conclusion;187
6.6.6;References;189
6.7;Gun Violence and Control in Germany 1880--1911: Scandalizing Gun Violence and Changing Perceptions as Preconditions for Firearm Control;192
6.7.1;1 Contexts, Categories, Questions;192
6.7.2;2 New CenturyNew Violence? Occurrence and Perceptions;194
6.7.3;3 A New Figuration of Violence: From Knives to Guns;196
6.7.3.1;3.1 Characteristics of the New Violence;197
6.7.3.1.1;3.1.1 Perpetrators and Victims;197
6.7.3.1.2;3.1.2 Locations;198
6.7.3.1.3;3.1.3 Motives;198
6.7.3.1.4;3.1.4 Means;198
6.7.3.2;3.2 From Knife to Gun Culture;199
6.7.4;4 The Material Base of the New Violence;200
6.7.4.1;4.1 New Weapons Available;200
6.7.4.1.1;4.1.1 Technological Development;200
6.7.4.1.2;4.1.2 Attractiveness;201
6.7.4.1.3;4.1.3 Dissemination;201
6.7.4.2;4.2 Technology and Ubiquity Increase Incidence of Violence;202
6.7.5;5 Traditional Habits Meet New Devices: A New Figuration of Violence and a Growing Control Gap;203
6.7.5.1;5.1 Pre-modern Violence Control;203
6.7.5.1.1;5.1.1 Pre-modern Habits of Violent Interaction;203
6.7.5.1.2;5.1.2 Pre-modern Habits of Violence Control;203
6.7.5.2;5.2 Pre-modern Patterns Meet Modern Technology;204
6.7.5.2.1;5.2.1 Failure of Violence Control in the Face of Modern Gun Technology;204
6.7.5.2.2;5.2.2 Cultural Embedding of Weapons Leads to Omnipresence of Handguns;205
6.7.5.3;5.3 Negligence and Numbers as Constitutive Factor of the New Violence;205
6.7.6;6 Delay of PerceptionDelay of Control;206
6.7.6.1;6.1 Administrative Attention from Silence to Concern;206
6.7.6.1.1;6.1.1 Calm Observations as the Century Ends;207
6.7.6.1.2;6.1.2 1909/1910: Unrest and Concern Trigger Thoughts About Violence Control;208
6.7.6.2;6.2 A Vague Understanding of New Violence and Old Ways of Control;209
6.7.6.2.1;6.2.1 Vague Awareness and Understanding of the Modern Figuration of Violence;209
6.7.6.3;6.3 Complex Transformations: The Control Gap as Time Gap;209
6.7.7;7 The First Step Toward Control: Politicizing Through Scandalization;210
6.7.7.1;7.1 Starting the Control Cycle-Initiating Communication;210
6.7.7.1.1;7.1.1 Media Attention to Gun Violence;210
6.7.7.1.2;7.1.2 Parliamentary Debates;211
6.7.7.1.3;7.1.3 Government Activities: Collecting Data, Debating Action, Drafting Legislation;212
6.7.7.2;7.2 Civil Society and Public Communication as Driving Forces for Violence Control;213
6.7.7.3;7.3 Gun Laws to Control Politicized Violence: 1928 and After;215
6.7.8;8 Changing Faces of ViolenceVarying Features of Control;215
6.7.9;References;216
6.8;Controlling Control Institutions: Policing of Collective Protests in 1960s West Germany;220
6.8.1;1 Police Service in 1950/1960s West Germany;221
6.8.1.1;1.1 Weimar Traditions, Masculinity, and Crisis of Authority;221
6.8.1.2;1.2 The Technological and Organizational Modernization of Routine Policing;223
6.8.2;2 Protest Policing in West Germany;226
6.8.2.1;2.1 Policing Beat Music Riots;226
6.8.2.2;2.2 Policing Student Protests;227
6.8.3;3 Conclusion;232
6.8.4;References;233
7;Part III The Micro-level: School Shootings;237
7.1;School Violence and Its Control in Germany and the United States Since the 1950s;238
7.1.1;1 Introduction;238
7.1.2;2 The Debate of the Mid-1950s;242
7.1.3;3 The Debate of the Mid-1970s;248
7.1.3.1;3.1 The United States;248
7.1.3.2;3.2 The West German Debate in the Mid-1970s;254
7.1.4;4 The Pre-Columbine 1990s;259
7.1.5;5 Conclusion;260
7.1.6;References;261
7.2;School Shooting: A Double Loss of Control;265
7.2.1;1 The Argument;265
7.2.2;2 School Shootings: The Phenomenon and the Numbers;266
7.2.2.1;2.1 Criteria for Classification and Exclusion;266
7.2.2.2;2.2 Frequency Distribution Over Time;267
7.2.3;3 School Shootings in the Public and Scientific Eye;269
7.2.3.1;3.1 The Preference for Undifferentiated Pathologization;269
7.2.3.2;3.2 Scientific Findings on Mental Disorders in School Shooters;270
7.2.3.3;3.3 Deficits in Explaining the Interaction of Individual Factors;271
7.2.4;4 The Three-Part Composite Theory;272
7.2.4.1;4.1 Social Disintegration Theory and Its Relevance for Explaining School Shootings;272
7.2.4.1.1;4.1.1 Social Recognition: The Basis of SDT;273
7.2.4.1.2;4.1.2 Social Processes and the Effect of Disintegration;274
7.2.4.1.3;4.1.3 Configurations of Effects;276
7.2.4.2;4.2 The Youth Theory Facet: The Ambivalence of Growing Up;276
7.2.4.3;4.3 The Aspect of Control Theory;277
7.2.5;5 Analytical and Empirical Results: Loss of Control Through Cumulative Decay of Recognition;278
7.2.5.1;5.1 Recognition in the Family: Loss of Control by Parents and Children;278
7.2.5.2;5.2 Recognition in the Peer Group: Loss of Control over Social Relationships;280
7.2.6;6 Action Settings That Promote Violence;281
7.2.7;7 School Shootings as Indicators of Institutional Losses of Control;283
7.2.8;8 School Shooting as the Radicalization of Social Norms and Values?;285
7.2.8.1;8.1 The Battle for Recognition and Control: Adolescents Under (Status) Pressure;285
7.2.8.2;8.2 The Cultural Script of Masculinity: Power Over Others Equals Control;287
7.2.9;9 Dynamics of Escalation: Control, Loss of Control, and Violent Quests for Control;288
7.2.9.1;9.1 Social Disintegration and Inadequate Conflict Management Skills: Loss of Control over Life Situation;290
7.2.9.2;9.2 Compensation of Action and Control Deficits: Violent Fantasies;291
7.2.9.3;9.3 The Quest for Control: The How;291
7.2.9.4;9.4 From Absolute Loss of Control to the Crime: Triggering Causes;292
7.2.10;10 Social Control Strategies and Losses of Control;293
7.2.11;11 An Interim Conclusion;295
7.2.12;References;296
7.3;Explaining and Preventing School Shootings: Chances and Difficulties of Control;299
7.3.1;1 Targeted School Violence;299
7.3.2;2 The Frequency of School Shootings;300
7.3.3;3 Explaining School Shootings: Warning Signs and Possible Risk Factors;302
7.3.3.1;3.1 Planning of the Offenses;302
7.3.3.2;3.2 Leaking as a Central Warning Sign;303
7.3.3.3;3.3 Violent Fantasies and Consumption of Media Violence;304
7.3.3.4;3.4 Mental Disorders;305
7.3.3.5;3.5 Risk Factors in the Social Environment;305
7.3.3.6;3.6 Motives;305
7.3.3.7;3.7 Structural Risk Factors;306
7.3.4;4 Explaining School Shootings: Explanatory Models;306
7.3.5;5 Deficiencies of Control;308
7.3.5.1;5.1 Deficiency of Personal Control;309
7.3.5.2;5.2 Deficiency of Control Within the Social Environment and Within Organizations;309
7.3.5.3;5.3 Deficiencies of Control Within the Media;310
7.3.6;6 Possibilities of Control and Prevention;310
7.3.6.1;6.1 Primary Prevention;310
7.3.6.2;6.2 Secondary Prevention;311
7.3.6.3;6.3 Further Starting Point for Preventive Purposes;315
7.3.7;7 Concluding Remarks;315
7.3.8;References;316
7.4;Masculinity, School Shooters, and the Control of Violence;319
7.4.1;1 Introduction;319
7.4.2;2 Hegemonic Masculinity in America;321
7.4.3;3 Masculinity Wars;323
7.4.4;4 The Womens Movement and Gender Politics;324
7.4.5;5 Hegemonic Masculinity in Crisis;326
7.4.6;6 Ronald Reagan to the Rescue;327
7.4.7;7 Masculinity Wars;329
7.4.8;8 The New Militarism and Paramilitarism;330
7.4.9;9 Bill Clinton and the Sex Wars;332
7.4.10;10 Youth Wars;333
7.4.11;11 Rampage Shootings in the United States from the 1980s to the Present;336
7.4.12;12 Rampage Shootings Outside the United States;339
7.4.13;13 The Control of Violence;342
7.4.14;References;345
7.5;Media and Control of Violence: Communication in School Shootings;349
7.5.1;1 Communication in School Shootings;350
7.5.2;2 The Shooters;352
7.5.2.1;2.1 The Performative Script;352
7.5.2.2;2.2 Communication via the Media;353
7.5.3;3 The Media;354
7.5.4;4 The Natural History of School Shootings;356
7.5.5;5 Social Control as Communicative Response;358
7.5.6;6 Conclusion;359
7.5.7;7 Appendix: Research on the Effects of Media Violence;361
7.5.8;References;363
8;Part IV The Meso-level: Terrorism;366
8.1;Terrorism as Performance: The Assassinations of Walther Rathenau and Hanns-Martin Schleyer;367
8.1.1;1 The Assassination of Walther Rathenau;369
8.1.2;2 The Assassination of Hanns-Martin Schleyer;378
8.1.3;3 Conclusion;389
8.1.4;References;392
8.2;Party Politics, National Security, and Emigre Political Violence in Australia, 1949 - 1973;397
8.2.1;1 Picking Sides and Choosing Battles;399
8.2.2;2 Uneasy Bedfellows;403
8.2.3;3 Romances End;408
8.2.4;4 Denouement;413
8.2.5;References;414
8.3;Control of TerrorTerror of Control;417
8.3.1;1 Individual Terrorists;418
8.3.2;2 Terrorist Organizations and Their Aims;421
8.3.3;3 Predictability and Control;424
8.3.4;4 Threat and Response;426
8.3.5;5 Conclusion;429
8.3.6;References;430
8.4;Terrorism: Conditions and Limits of Control;433
8.4.1;1 Provocation and Reaction;434
8.4.2;2 Operational Conditions and the Likelihood of Error;436
8.4.3;3 Reference Group Controls and Opportunity Structures;437
8.4.4;4 Opportunities for Intervention;441
8.4.5;5 Conditions of Success and Residual Risks;442
8.4.6;References;444
8.5;Fighting for the Community of Believers: Dynamics of Control in the Relationship Between Militant Islamist Movements and their Constituencies;447
8.5.1;1 Religious TerrorismBeyond Control?;448
8.5.2;2 Militant Islamist Movements and Their Reference Groups;450
8.5.3;3 Radicalization and Estrangement: Al-Jamaa Al-Islamiyya and Al-Jihad in Egypt;452
8.5.4;4 Dynamics of Support and Control: Hizbullah in Lebanon;458
8.5.5;5 Conclusion: Patterns of Orientation, Interaction, and Control;463
8.5.6;References;465
8.6;Baseless Jihad;468
8.6.1;1 Introduction;468
8.6.2;2 Background;470
8.6.2.1;2.1 What Happened?;470
8.6.2.2;2.2 The Revisions' Ambivalent Effects;473
8.6.3;3 Al-Jamaa al-Islamiyyas Change of Mind;475
8.6.3.1;3.1 Communication as Bargaining Power;476
8.6.3.2;3.2 Selective Inducements;476
8.6.3.3;3.3 Repression and Sympathy;477
8.6.4;4 Enabling Jihad but Disabling Al-Qaida;478
8.6.4.1;4.1 Communication as Bargaining Power;479
8.6.4.2;4.2 Selective Inducements;480
8.6.4.3;4.3 Repression and Sympathy;481
8.6.5;5 Conclusion;482
8.6.6;References;485
9;Part V The Macro level: Violence in States in Crisis;486
9.1;Ethnic Riots in Situations of Loss of Control: Revolution, Civil War, and Regime Change as Opportunity Structures for Anti-Jewish Violence in Nineteenth- and Twentieth-Century Europe;487
9.1.1;1 Pogroms as a Form of Collective Violence;488
9.1.2;2 Historical Case Studies;492
9.1.2.1;2.1 Anti-Jewish Violence in the Revolutions of 1830 and 1847--1848;495
9.1.2.2;2.2 The First Wave of Pogroms in Imperial Russia, 1881--1883;498
9.1.2.3;2.3 The Second Wave of Pogroms in Imperial Russia, 1903--1906;501
9.1.2.4;2.4 The Pogrom Wave during the Russian Civil War, 1917--1921;505
9.1.2.5;2.5 Polish Border Wars, 1918--1920;507
9.1.2.6;2.6 Pogroms in the Wake of Operation Barbarossa;509
9.1.3;3 Conclusion;512
9.1.4;References;513
9.2;Control and Chaos: Paramilitary Violence and the Dissolution of the Habsburg Empire;517
9.2.1;1 Introduction;517
9.2.2;2 Patterns of Violence: Origins, Manifestations, Legacies;520
9.2.3;3 Conclusions;530
9.2.4;References;532
9.3;Failed States in Theoretical, Historical, and Policy Perspectives;534
9.3.1;1 Introduction;534
9.3.2;2 States and Failed States;536
9.3.3;3 A Taxonomy of State Failure;538
9.3.3.1;3.1 State Failure Type I;538
9.3.3.2;3.2 State Failure Type II;539
9.3.3.3;3.3 State Failure Type III;539
9.3.3.4;3.4 State Failure Type IV;540
9.3.3.5;3.5 The Failed States Continuum;540
9.3.4;4 Understanding Why States Fail;542
9.3.4.1;4.1 The Micro-level: The Elites;543
9.3.4.2;4.2 The Macro-level: Internal Structural Factors;545
9.3.4.3;4.3 The Meta-level: External Structural Factors;548
9.3.5;5 The Two Imperialisms;549
9.3.5.1;5.1 Imperialism of Raison d'État;550
9.3.5.2;5.2 Imperialism of Capitalism;555
9.3.6;6 Rebuilding Failed States;556
9.3.7;7 Conclusion;560
9.3.8;References;560
9.4;Putting Out the Fire with Gasoline? Violence Control in ``Fragile'' States: A Study of Vigilantism in Nigeria;561
9.4.1;1 Introduction;561
9.4.2;2 Nigeria: A Fragile State?;566
9.4.3;3 Control of Violence in Nigeria: Vigilantism and the State;570
9.4.3.1;3.1 The Notion of Vigilantism;570
9.4.3.2;3.2 Vigilantism and the State---Major Lines of Debate;571
9.4.3.3;3.3 Vigilantism in Nigeria and Its Historical Precedents;573
9.4.3.4;3.4 Mistrust of State Controllers of Violence: An Opening for Vigilantes;574
9.4.3.5;3.5 Time, Space, Identity: Vigilantes at the ''Frontiers'' of the State;576
9.4.3.6;3.6 Magic and Occult Forces: Alternate Sources of Power and Legitimacy;577
9.4.3.7;3.7 Vigilantes as Providers of Social Security: Showing Up the State;578
9.4.3.8;3.8 Involvement in Politico-economic Networks: Resource and Achilles Heel;579
9.4.3.9;3.9 Between Rejecting and Strengthening the State: An Intermediate Conclusion;580
9.4.3.10;3.10 The Problem of Controlling the Controllers of Violence: Ambivalences of Vigilante Practices;582
9.4.4;4 Conclusion;583
9.4.5;References;586
10;Concluding Remarks;590
10.1;References;595
11;Subject Index;596