Hofrichter Industrial Applications

2. Auflage 2010
ISBN: 978-3-642-11458-8
Verlag: Springer
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: Adobe DRM (»Systemvoraussetzungen)

E-Book, Englisch, 485 Seiten

This volume gives a survey of the state of the art in the traditional fields of industrial mycology as well as of selected novel applications of fungi. The first section deals with the use of fungi in the production and processing of bread, cheese, beer and wine, traditional Asian fermentation products and edible mushrooms. The second section is devoted to the production of fungal metabolites and enzymes representing value-added products. In addition to antibiotics, alkaloids organic acids, vitamins and industrial enzymes, which have successfully been in use for decades, it is also dedicated to fungal metabolites, such as insecticidal and nematicidal compounds, immunosurppressants and flavors with promising biotechnological potential. In the next section, the recent developments in fungal biotransformation of small molecules, the bioconversion of lignocelluloses as well as the use of fungi in metal recovery are presented. The final part introduces some innovative new trends in the field of applied mycology: the preparation of fungal bioherbicides, recent genomic approaches for the identification of biopolymer degrading enzymes, current developments in using oxidative enzymes from fungi as well as new attempts to transfer fungal remediation technologies into practice.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Hofrichter, Martin

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Series Preface;8
2;Addendum to the Series Preface;12
3;Volume Preface to the Second Edition;14
4;Volume Preface to the First Edition;16
5;Contents;18
6;List of Contributors;20
7;Traditional Food and Beverage Fermentation;25
7.1;1: Production of Bread, Cheese and Meat;26
7.1.1;I. Introduction;26
7.1.2;II. Bread;27
7.1.2.1;A. Baker´s Yeast;27
7.1.2.2;B. Technological Properties of Baker´s Yeast;28
7.1.2.3;C. Manufacture of Baker´s Yeast;29
7.1.3;III. Cheese;30
7.1.3.1;A. Yeasts;30
7.1.3.1.1;1. Debaryomyces hansenii;30
7.1.3.1.2;2. Yarrowia lipolytica;33
7.1.3.1.3;3. Geotrichum candidum (perfect: Galactomyces candidus);34
7.1.3.1.4;4. Saccharomyces cerevisiae;34
7.1.3.2;B. Filamentous Fungi;35
7.1.3.2.1;1. Blue Mould Cheeses;35
7.1.3.2.1.1;a) Penicillium roqueforti;35
7.1.3.2.1.2;b) Technological Characteristics of Penicillium roqueforti;35
7.1.3.2.2;2. White Mould Cheeses;38
7.1.3.2.2.1;a) Penicillium camemberti;38
7.1.3.2.2.2;b) Technological Characteristics of Penicillium camemberti;38
7.1.3.3;C. Microbial Interactions in Cheeses Involving Yeast and Filamentous Fungi;39
7.1.4;IV. Meat;41
7.1.5;V. Conclusions;42
7.1.6;References;43
7.2;2: Asian Fungal Fermented Food;51
7.2.1;I. Introduction;51
7.2.1.1;A. Food Fermentation;51
7.2.1.2;B. Useful Fungi;52
7.2.1.3;C. Fungal Fermented Foods World-Wide;52
7.2.1.4;D. Categories of Asian Fungal Fermented Foods;53
7.2.2;II. Tempe;53
7.2.2.1;A. The Product;53
7.2.2.2;B. Traditional Manufacturing Process;53
7.2.2.3;C. Fungi Involved and Their Relevant Properties;56
7.2.2.4;D. Biochemical Modifications and Implications for Health;57
7.2.2.5;E. Industrial Aspects;58
7.2.3;III. Red Kojic Rice (Angkak);59
7.2.3.1;A. The Product;59
7.2.3.2;B. Traditional Manufacturing Process;59
7.2.3.3;C. Fungi Involved and Their Relevant Properties;59
7.2.3.4;D. Industrial Aspects;61
7.2.4;IV. Amylolytic Starters;61
7.2.4.1;A. The Product;61
7.2.4.2;B. Traditional Manufacturing Process;62
7.2.4.3;C. Fungi Involved, Their Relevant Properties and Implications for Health;62
7.2.4.4;D. Industrial Aspects;63
7.2.5;V. Furu (Sufu);64
7.2.5.1;A. The Product;64
7.2.5.2;B. Traditional Manufacturing Process;64
7.2.5.3;C. Fungi Involved and Their Relevant Properties;65
7.2.5.4;D. Industrial Aspects;66
7.2.6;VI. Soy Sauce;66
7.2.6.1;A. The Product;66
7.2.6.2;B. Traditional Manufacturing Process;67
7.2.6.3;C. Fungi Involved, Their Relevant Properties and Implications for Health;68
7.2.6.4;D. Industrial Aspects;69
7.2.7;VII. Wines;70
7.2.7.1;A. The Products;70
7.2.7.2;B. Traditional Manufacturing Process;71
7.2.7.3;C. Fungi Involved and Their Relevant Properties;71
7.2.7.4;D. Industrial Aspects;72
7.2.8;VIII. Chinese Liquor;72
7.2.8.1;A. The Product;72
7.2.8.2;B. Traditional Manufacturing Process;73
7.2.8.3;C. Fungi Involved and Their Relevant Properties;73
7.2.8.4;D. Industrial Aspects;74
7.2.9;IX. Conclusions;74
7.2.10;References;43
7.3;3: Production of Beer and Wine;81
7.3.1;I. Introduction;81
7.3.2;II. Beer Brewing;82
7.3.2.1;A. Raw Materials;83
7.3.2.2;B. Malt Production;84
7.3.2.3;C. Steps in the Brew House;85
7.3.2.3.1;1. Malt Grinding and Mashing;85
7.3.2.3.2;2. Lautering;86
7.3.2.3.3;3. Wort Cooking;86
7.3.2.3.4;4. Cooling and Wort Treatment;86
7.3.2.4;D. Fermentation;87
7.3.2.5;E. Maturation;87
7.3.2.6;F. Filtration, Stabilisation and Packaging;88
7.3.2.7;G. Final Beer;88
7.3.2.8;H. Beer-Like Beverages;89
7.3.3;III. Wine Making;90
7.3.3.1;A. Grape Varieties and Composition;90
7.3.3.2;B. Wine Types;91
7.3.3.3;C. Wine Production;91
7.3.3.3.1;1. Grape Harvest;91
7.3.3.3.2;2. Crushing;91
7.3.3.3.3;3. Pressing Process;92
7.3.3.3.4;4. Fermentation;93
7.3.3.3.5;5. Clarification;93
7.3.3.3.6;6. Stabilisation and Fining;93
7.3.3.3.7;7. Storage and Bottling;94
7.3.3.4;D. Production of Sparkling Wine;94
7.3.3.5;E. Production of Fortified Wines;94
7.3.4;IV. Conclusions;95
7.3.5;References;96
7.4;4: Production of Edible Mushrooms;100
7.4.1;I. Introduction;100
7.4.2;II. Present Scenario of Mushroom Production;101
7.4.3;III. Main Genera of Cultivated Mushrooms;101
7.4.4;IV. Cultivation of Calocybe indica P. and C. (Milky Mushroom);102
7.4.4.1;A. Substrate and Substrate Preparation;102
7.4.4.2;B. Spawn Preparation;103
7.4.4.3;C. Spawning;103
7.4.4.4;D. Casing;104
7.4.4.5;E. Cropping;104
7.4.4.6;F. Precautions during Cropping;104
7.4.4.7;G. Harvesting;105
7.4.5;V. Cultivation of Pleurotus spp. (Oyster Mushrooms);105
7.4.5.1;A. Advantages of Growing Oyster Mushrooms;105
7.4.5.2;B. History of Oyster Mushroom Cultivation;106
7.4.5.3;C. Biology of the Oyster Mushroom;106
7.4.5.4;D. Varieties of Oyster Mushrooms;106
7.4.5.5;E. Cultivation;107
7.4.5.5.1;1. Preparation or Procurement of Spawn;107
7.4.5.5.2;2. Substrate Preparation and Nutrition Quality;107
7.4.5.5.3;3. Spawning of Substrates;108
7.4.5.5.4;4. Crop Management and Incubation;108
7.4.5.6;F. Harvesting and Post-Harvest Practice;109
7.4.5.7;G. Medicinal and Nutritional Value of Oyster Mushrooms;109
7.4.5.8;H. Precautions While Growing Oyster Mushrooms;109
7.4.6;VI. Cultivation of Auricularia spp. (Black Ear Mushroom);109
7.4.6.1;A. Biology of Black Ear Mushrooms;110
7.4.6.2;B. Cultivation Techniques;110
7.4.6.2.1;1. Wood Log Cultivation;110
7.4.6.2.2;2. Composted Sawdust Method (``Synthetic Log´´ Cultivation);110
7.4.6.2.3;3. Composting of Saw Dust, Spawning and Culture Conditions;110
7.4.6.2.4;4. Harvesting;111
7.4.6.3;C. Nutritional Value of Auricularia spp;111
7.4.7;VII. Cultivation of Lentinula edodes (Shiitake);111
7.4.7.1;A. Cultivation Technique on Wood Logs;111
7.4.7.1.1;1. Log Preparation;111
7.4.7.1.2;2. Spawn Preparation and Spawning the Logs;112
7.4.7.1.3;3. Crop Management;112
7.4.7.2;B. ``Synthetic Log´´ Cultivation;112
7.4.7.2.1;1. Substrate Preparation;112
7.4.7.2.2;2. Spawning and Spawn Run;112
7.4.7.2.3;3. Fruiting and Harvesting;113
7.4.7.2.4;4. Special Features of the Plastic Bag (``Synthetic Log´´) Method;113
7.4.8;VIII. Cultivation of Stropharia rugoso-annulata (Wine-Cap Stropharia);113
7.4.9;IX. Cultivation of Volvariella spp. (Paddy Straw Mushrooms);114
7.4.10;X. Cultivation of Flammulina velutipes (Enokitake);115
7.4.10.1;A. Future Prospects;116
7.4.11;XI. Conclusions;116
7.4.12;References;116
8;Metabolites and Enzymes;119
8.1;5: The beta-Lactam Antibiotics: Current Situation and Future Prospects in Manufacture and Therapy;120
8.1.1;I. Introduction;120
8.1.2;II. Manufacturing Aspects;121
8.1.2.1;A. Strain Improvement;121
8.1.2.1.1;1. Characterization of Biosynthetic Pathways;121
8.1.2.1.1.1;a) Cephalosporin C Synthesis in Acremonium chrysogenum;121
8.1.2.1.1.2;b) Penicillin Formation by Penicillium chrysogenum;123
8.1.2.1.2;2. Genetic Engineering;123
8.1.2.1.2.1;a) Acremonium chrysogenum;123
8.1.2.1.2.2;b) Penicillium chrysogenum;123
8.1.2.1.3;3. Approaches and Goals for Further Strain Improvement;124
8.1.2.2;B. Fermentation;125
8.1.2.2.1;1. Cultivation Media;125
8.1.2.2.1.1;a) Complex Ingredients;125
8.1.2.2.1.2;b) Synthetic Components;125
8.1.2.2.1.3;c) Amino Acids;126
8.1.2.2.1.4;d) Productivity-Enhancing Substrates;126
8.1.2.2.1.5;e) Concentration of Carbon, Nitrogen and Phosphor Sources;126
8.1.2.2.2;2. Physical Process Parameters;127
8.1.2.2.2.1;a) Influence of pH;127
8.1.2.2.2.2;b) Oxygen Supply;127
8.1.2.2.3;3. Scale-Up;128
8.1.2.3;C. Downstream Processing;128
8.1.2.3.1;1. Recovery and Purification;128
8.1.2.3.2;2. Side Chain Cleavage;129
8.1.2.3.2.1;a) 7-Aminocephalosporanic Acid;129
8.1.2.3.2.2;b) 6-Aminopenicillanic Acid;130
8.1.2.3.3;3. Economization of the Cleavage Process;131
8.1.2.4;D. Options for Future Production Processes;131
8.1.2.4.1;1. One-Enzyme Cleavage of Cephalosporin C;131
8.1.2.4.2;2. Production of Adipyl-Cephalosporins in Penicillium chrysogenum;131
8.1.2.4.3;3. Production of 7-ADOCA;131
8.1.2.4.4;4. Direct Expression of 7-ACA in A. chrysogenum;132
8.1.3;III. Therapeutic Aspects;133
8.1.3.1;A. Multidrug Resistance;133
8.1.3.2;B. beta-Lactamase Resistance;133
8.1.3.3;C. Future Developments;134
8.1.3.3.1;1. beta-Lactams;134
8.1.3.3.2;2. Novel Therapeutic Approaches;135
8.1.4;IV. Conclusions;135
8.1.5;References;136
8.2;6: Non-beta-Lactam Antibiotics;141
8.2.1;I. Introduction;141
8.2.2;II. Antifungal Drugs;142
8.2.2.1;A. Griseofulvin;142
8.2.2.2;B. Inhibitors of Fungal Cell Wall Assembly, (1,3)-beta-d-Glucan Synthase Inhibitors;143
8.2.2.2.1;1. Echinocandins and Pneumocandins;143
8.2.2.2.2;2. Papulacandins;146
8.2.2.2.3;3. Acidic Triterpenes;146
8.2.2.3;C. Sphingolipid Synthesis Inhibitors;147
8.2.2.3.1;1. Inhibitors of Serine Palmitoyltransferase;148
8.2.2.3.2;2. Inhibitors of Ceramide Synthase;149
8.2.2.3.3;3. Inhibitors of Inositol Phosphorylceramid Synthase;150
8.2.2.4;D. Inhibitors of Protein Biosynthesis;151
8.2.2.5;E. Emerging Antifungal Therapies;154
8.2.2.6;F. The Strobilurins and Oudemansins, Inhibitors of Fungal Respiration;155
8.2.3;III. Antibacterial Antibiotics;157
8.2.3.1;A. Fusidic Acid;157
8.2.3.2;B. Pleuromutilins;158
8.2.4;IV. Conclusions;158
8.2.5;References;159
8.3;7: Insecticidal and Nematicidal Metabolites from Fungi;168
8.3.1;I. Introduction;168
8.3.2;II. Novel Compounds and Their Producers;168
8.3.2.1;A. Peptides, Cyclic Peptides, and Cyclic Depsipeptides;168
8.3.2.2;B. Novel Metabolites and New Derivatives of Insecticidal or Nematicidal Metabolites;169
8.3.3;III. Biological Activities and Mode of Action;175
8.3.4;IV. Ecological Significance;176
8.3.5;V. Conclusions;177
8.3.6;References;177
8.4;8: Immunomodulators;181
8.4.1;I. Introduction;181
8.4.2;II. Immunosuppressants;182
8.4.2.1;A. Cyclosporins;182
8.4.2.1.1;1. Chemistry;184
8.4.2.1.2;2. Biosynthesis;184
8.4.2.1.3;3. Production;186
8.4.2.1.4;4. New Generations;187
8.4.2.2;B. Mycophenolic Acid;187
8.4.2.2.1;1. Chemistry;189
8.4.2.2.2;2. Biosynthesis;190
8.4.2.2.3;3. Production;190
8.4.2.3;C. Mizoribine;191
8.4.2.4;D. Other Immunosuppressants;192
8.4.2.4.1;1. Ovalicins and Fumagillins;192
8.4.2.4.2;2. Gliotoxin;192
8.4.2.4.3;3. Trichopolyns;194
8.4.2.4.4;4. Myriocin;195
8.4.2.4.5;5. Flavidulols;195
8.4.2.4.6;6. Kobiins;195
8.4.2.4.7;7. Mycestericins;196
8.4.2.4.8;8. Terprenins;196
8.4.2.4.9;9. FR901483;196
8.4.2.4.10;10. Colutellin A;196
8.4.3;III. Mushroom Immunomodulators;196
8.4.3.1;A. Lectins;197
8.4.3.2;B. Terpenoids;197
8.4.3.3;C. Polysaccharides;197
8.4.3.4;D. Fungal Immunomodulator Proteins;200
8.4.3.5;E. Industrial Production of Mushroom Immunomodulators;200
8.4.4;IV. Conclusions;201
8.4.5;References;201
8.5;9: Ergot Alkaloids;211
8.5.1;I. Introduction;211
8.5.2;II. Ergot Alkaloid-Producing Fungi;212
8.5.2.1;A. Ergot Alkaloid Producers in the Clavicipitaceae;212
8.5.2.1.1;1. Claviceps Species;212
8.5.2.1.2;2. Neotyphodium Species;213
8.5.2.1.3;3. Other Clavicipitaceous Fungi;213
8.5.2.2;B. Ergot Alkaloid Producers in the Trichocomaceae;214
8.5.2.2.1;1. Aspergillus fumigatus;214
8.5.2.2.2;2. Other Trichocomaceous Fungi;214
8.5.3;III. Ergot Alkaloid Profiles and Pathways in Different Fungi;214
8.5.3.1;A. Early Pathway Steps Shared Among Producers;215
8.5.3.2;B. Ergot Alkaloid Profile Diversification Through Pathway Divergence;218
8.5.3.2.1;1. Terminal Branch in Trichocomaceous Ergot Alkaloid Producers;218
8.5.3.2.2;2. Typical Terminal Branch in Clavicipitaceous Ergot Alkaloid Producers;219
8.5.3.2.3;3. Dihydroergot Alkaloid Branch in Clavicipitaceous Fungi;221
8.5.3.3;C. Regulation of Clustered Ergot Pathway Genes;222
8.5.4;IV. Pathway Inefficiency as a Means to Diversify Alkaloid Profiles;222
8.5.4.1;A. Inefficiency in the Ergot Pathway Provides Diversified Alkaloid Profiles;222
8.5.4.2;B. Other Pathways that Appear to have Preset, Step-Specific Reductions in Flux;223
8.5.5;V. Activities of Ergot Alkaloids;224
8.5.5.1;A. Effects on Humans;224
8.5.5.2;B. Ecological Roles;225
8.5.6;VI. Conclusions;226
8.5.7;References;227
8.6;10: Production of Organic Acids by Filamentous Fungi;231
8.6.1;I. Introduction;231
8.6.2;II. Citric Acid;232
8.6.2.1;A. Biosynthesis of Citric Acid;232
8.6.2.2;B. Fermentation Conditions;237
8.6.2.3;C. Strain Breeding;239
8.6.2.4;D. Production Processes for Citric Acid;240
8.6.3;III. Gluconic Acid;242
8.6.3.1;A. Biochemistry of Gluconic Acid Formation;243
8.6.3.2;B. Production of Gluconic Acid;243
8.6.4;IV. Itaconic Acid;244
8.6.4.1;A. Biochemical Pathways of Itaconic Acid Synthesis;244
8.6.4.2;B. Production of Itaconic Acid;244
8.6.5;V. Other Acids;245
8.6.6;VI. Conclusions;245
8.6.7;References;246
8.7;11: Production of Vitamin B2 and a Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid by Fungi;251
8.7.1;I. Introduction;251
8.7.2;II. Vitamin B2;251
8.7.2.1;A. Ashbya gossypii;252
8.7.2.1.1;1. The Riboflavin Biosynthesis Pathway;252
8.7.2.1.2;2. Isolation of RIB Genes;254
8.7.2.1.3;3. Regulation of Riboflavin Overproduction;254
8.7.2.1.4;4. Classical and Molecular Tools for Strain Improvement;255
8.7.2.1.5;5. Engineering of Pathways;255
8.7.2.1.5.1;a) Riboflavin Pathway;255
8.7.2.1.5.2;b) Riboflavin Precursor Supply;255
8.7.2.1.5.2.1;Purine and Glycine Metabolism;255
8.7.2.1.5.2.2;Isocitrate Lyase and Isocitrate Dehydrogenase;256
8.7.2.1.6;6. Riboflavin Excretion and Vacuolar Accumulation;257
8.7.2.1.7;7. Production and Downstream Processing;257
8.7.2.2;B. Candida famata;258
8.7.3;III. Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids;258
8.7.3.1;A. Mortierella alpina;260
8.7.4;IV. Conclusions;261
8.7.5;References;261
8.8;12: Fungal Flavours;264
8.8.1;I. Introduction;264
8.8.2;II. Volatile Flavours Emitted from Fruiting Bodies;265
8.8.2.1;A. Volatiles from Sporocarps Emitted by Basidiomycetous Fungi;265
8.8.2.1.1;1. Agaricus bisporus;265
8.8.2.1.1.1;a) General Remarks;265
8.8.2.1.1.2;b) Enzymatic Pathways of C8 Volatiles in Fungi;266
8.8.2.1.2;2. Pleurotus florida;268
8.8.2.1.3;3. Pleurotus ostreatus;268
8.8.2.1.4;4. Pleurotus eryngii;268
8.8.2.1.5;5. Fistulina hepatica;269
8.8.2.1.6;6. Boletus edulis;269
8.8.2.1.7;7. Calocybe indica;270
8.8.2.1.8;8. Hygrophorus spp;270
8.8.2.1.9;9. Termitomyces shimperi;270
8.8.2.1.10;10. Lentinula edodes;271
8.8.2.1.11;11. Volvariella volvacea;271
8.8.2.1.12;12. Polyporus sulfureus;271
8.8.2.1.13;13. Tricholoma matsutake;272
8.8.2.1.14;14. Phallus impudicus;273
8.8.2.1.15;15. Marasmius alliaceus;273
8.8.2.1.16;16. Lactarius helvus;273
8.8.2.1.17;17. Flavour Profiles of Miscellaneous Fungi ;273
8.8.2.1.18;18. Fungi Emitting Anis-Like or Bitter Almond-Like Odours;273
8.8.2.1.19;19. Key Flavour Compounds of Miscellaneous Fungi;274
8.8.2.2;B. Volatiles Emitted from Ascomycetes;274
8.8.2.2.1;1. Tuber spp;274
8.8.2.2.2;2. Tuber aestivum and T. melanosporum;274
8.8.2.2.3;3. Tuber magnatum Pico;275
8.8.2.2.4;4. Tuber borchii;276
8.8.3;III. Flavour Profiles of Fungi Grown in Submerged Cultures;276
8.8.3.1;A. Basidiomycetous Fungi;276
8.8.3.1.1;1. Flavour Profiles of Miscellaneous Fungi;276
8.8.3.1.2;2. Pleurotus florida;277
8.8.3.1.3;3. Pleurotus ostreatus;277
8.8.3.1.4;4. Nidula niveo-tomentosa;277
8.8.3.1.5;5. Fistulina hepatica;278
8.8.3.2;B. Ascomycetous Fungi;278
8.8.3.2.1;1. Tuber borchii;278
8.8.3.2.2;2. Penicillium vulpinum;279
8.8.3.2.3;3. Ceratocystis moniliformis;279
8.8.4;IV. Conclusions;279
8.8.5;References;279
8.9;13: Industrial Applications of Fungal Enzymes;284
8.9.1;I. Introduction;284
8.9.2;II. Fungal Enzymes in Industry;284
8.9.3;III. Safety of Fungal Production Organisms;285
8.9.4;IV. Enzyme Classification System;286
8.9.5;V. Enzymes for Detergents and Personal Care;287
8.9.6;VI. Enzymes for Other Non-Food Industries;291
8.9.6.1;A. Textiles;291
8.9.6.2;B. Leather;293
8.9.6.3;C. Forest Products;294
8.9.6.4;D. Animal Feed;294
8.9.6.5;E. Fuel Ethanol;295
8.9.6.6;F. Biocatalysis - Enzymes in Organic Synthesis;296
8.9.7;VII. Enzymes for Food Industries;297
8.9.7.1;A. Sweetener Production;297
8.9.7.2;B. Baking;298
8.9.7.3;C. Dairy;298
8.9.7.4;D. Protein Hydrolysis;299
8.9.7.5;E. Brewing;300
8.9.7.6;F. Distilling;300
8.9.7.7;G. Fruit Juice and Wine;301
8.9.7.8;H. Lipid Modification;301
8.9.8;VIII. Conclusions;302
8.9.9;References;304
9;Biotransformations, Lignocellulose Conversion and Recovery of Metals from Solution;306
9.1;14: Fungal Biotransformations in Pharmaceutical Sciences;307
9.1.1;I. Introduction;307
9.1.2;II. Types and Properties of Biotransformations;308
9.1.3;III. Biotransformation of Pharmaceutically Relevant Small Molecules;310
9.1.3.1;A. Alkaloids;310
9.1.3.2;B. Sterols, Taxanes and Other Terpenes;313
9.1.3.3;C. Small Peptides;320
9.1.3.4;D. Polyketides;321
9.1.4;IV. Biotransformation of Drugs and Various Synthetic Small Molecules;324
9.1.4.1;A. Biotransformations for Preparative Purposes;324
9.1.4.2;B. Fungi as Models for Mammalian Xenobiotic Metabolism;325
9.1.5;V. Conclusions;328
9.1.6;References;328
9.2;15: Fungal Biodegradation of Lignocelluloses;332
9.2.1;I. Introduction;332
9.2.2;II. Fungal Degradation of Lignocellulose;333
9.2.2.1;A. White-Rot Fungi;333
9.2.2.2;B. Brown-Rot Fungi;334
9.2.2.3;C. Soft-Rot Fungi;334
9.2.3;III. Fungal Degradation of Wood Polysaccharides;335
9.2.4;IV. Fungal Degradation of Lignin;337
9.2.4.1;A. White-Rot and Brown-Rot Fungi;337
9.2.4.1.1;1. Ligninolytic Peroxidases of White-Rot Fungi;338
9.2.4.1.2;2. Peroxidases of Brown-Rot Fungi?;339
9.2.4.1.3;3. Laccases;339
9.2.4.1.4;4. Role of Small Oxidants in Incipient Decay;341
9.2.4.1.5;5. Hydroquinones;342
9.2.4.1.6;6. Cellobiose Dehydrogenases;342
9.2.4.1.7;7. Redox-Active Glycopeptides;343
9.2.4.2;B. Soft-Rot Fungi;343
9.2.5;V. Biopulping as an Example of Potential Applications of White-Rot Fungi;344
9.2.6;VI. Overview of Fungal Lignin Degradation and Outlook;346
9.2.7;References;348
9.3;16: (Hemi-)Cellulose Degrading Enzymes and Their Encoding Genes from Aspergillus and Trichoderma;354
9.3.1;I. Introduction;354
9.3.1.1;A. Plant Cell Wall Composition;354
9.3.1.2;B. Aspergillus and Trichoderma;355
9.3.1.3;C. CAZy Database;355
9.3.2;II. Galacto- (Gluco)mannan Degrading and Modifying Enzymes;355
9.3.2.1;A. Endomannanases and beta-Mannosidases;355
9.3.2.2;B. Accessory Enzymes;356
9.3.2.3;C. Presence of Mannan-Related Genes in Genomes of Aspergillus;356
9.3.3;III. Xylan Degrading and Modifying Enzymes;356
9.3.3.1;A. Endoxylanases and beta-Xylosidases;356
9.3.3.2;B. Accessory Enzymes;357
9.3.3.3;C. Presence of Xylan-Related Genes in Genomes of Aspergillus;358
9.3.4;IV. Cellulose and Xyloglucan Degrading and Modifying Enzymes;358
9.3.4.1;A. Description of Cellulose and Xyloglucan Active Enzymes;358
9.3.4.2;B. Presence of Cellulose and Xyloglucan-Related Genes in Genomes of Aspergillus;358
9.3.5;V. Regulation of (Hemi-)Cellulolytic Gene Expression;359
9.3.6;VI. Applications of (Hemi-)Celluloses;361
9.3.7;VII. Conclusions and Prospects;362
9.3.8;References;363
9.4;17: Fungi and Their Enzymes for Pitch Control in the Pulp and Paper Industry;369
9.4.1;I. Introduction;369
9.4.2;II. Pitch Problems in Pulp and Paper Manufacturing;369
9.4.2.1;A. Resin in Plant Raw Materials;370
9.4.2.2;B. Resin in Pulp and Paper;371
9.4.3;III. From ``Natural´´ to ``Controlled´´ Seasoning of Wood ;372
9.4.3.1;A. Sapstain Fungi;373
9.4.3.2;B. White-Rot Fungi;374
9.4.4;IV. Pitch Biocontrol with Fungal Enzymes;375
9.4.4.1;A. Hydrolytic Enzymes;375
9.4.4.2;B. Oxidative Enzymes;378
9.4.5;V. Summary and Conclusions;384
9.4.6;References;385
9.5;18: Biosorption of Metals;390
9.5.1;I. Introduction;390
9.5.1.1;A. Metal Resistance;391
9.5.1.2;B. Practical Reasons for Using Biosorption;391
9.5.2;II. Structures Involved in Heavy Metal Binding;391
9.5.2.1;A. Cell Wall;391
9.5.2.2;B. Chemical Nature of the Binding Groups at the Cell Wall;392
9.5.2.3;C. Uptake of Metals into the Cell;393
9.5.2.4;D. Dependence on Metabolic Energy;393
9.5.3;III. Technology of Biosorption;393
9.5.3.1;A. Retention of Biomass and Mixing with the Solution;393
9.5.3.2;B. Pretreatment of the Biomass to Improve Biosorption;394
9.5.4;IV. Binding of Heavy Metals by Mycorrhizal Fungi;394
9.5.5;V. Examples of Heavy Metal Removal by Fungal Biomass;394
9.5.5.1;A. Overview of Fungal Species in Biosorption Experiments;394
9.5.5.2;B. Levels of Accumulation Obtained for Selected Metals and Fungi;396
9.5.5.3;C. Use of Biosorption for Analytical Purposes;396
9.5.6;VI. Conclusions;396
9.5.7;References;397
10;Recent Developments and New Strategies;404
10.1;19: Bioherbicides;405
10.1.1;I. Introduction;405
10.1.2;II. The Paradigm;406
10.1.2.1;A. Classical Approach;406
10.1.2.2;B. Bioherbicide Approach;406
10.1.2.3;C. Genetic Enhancement;408
10.1.3;III. Virulence Enhancement;408
10.1.3.1;A. Direct Application of Amino Acids as Herbicides;409
10.1.3.2;B. Amino Acid Excretion;409
10.1.3.3;C. Molecular Virulence Enhancement;409
10.1.4;IV. Biological Control of Striga and Orobanche;410
10.1.5;V. Alternative Approaches for Enhancement of Virulence and for Improved Control of Parasitic Plants;411
10.1.5.1;A. Fusarium as a Model System;411
10.1.5.2;B. Seed Germination;411
10.1.5.3;C. Innovations in Delivery Systems of Biocontrol Agents;412
10.1.5.4;D. Striga and Orobanche Resistant Crop Plants;412
10.1.6;VI. Summary and Outlook;412
10.1.7;References;413
10.2;20: Genomic Approaches for Identification of the Biopolymer Degrading Enzyme Network of Aspergillus niger;416
10.2.1;I. Introduction;416
10.2.1.1;A. Fungal Genomes;416
10.2.1.2;B. Aspergillus niger;417
10.2.2;II. Biopolymer Degradation by Aspergillus niger;417
10.2.2.1;A. Starch and Glycogen;417
10.2.2.1.1;1. General Remarks;417
10.2.2.1.2;2. Genomics of Enzymes Acting on Starch;418
10.2.2.2;B. Pectin;421
10.2.2.2.1;1. General Remarks;421
10.2.2.2.2;2. Genomics of Enzymes Acting on Pectin;421
10.2.2.2.3;3. Strain Differences;423
10.2.2.2.4;4. Expression and Regulation of Pectinases;423
10.2.2.3;C. Inulin and Sucrose;424
10.2.2.3.1;1. General Remarks;424
10.2.2.3.2;2. Genomics of Enzymes Acting on Inulin and Sucrose;424
10.2.3;III. Post-Genomic Approaches to Identify Transcriptional Regulators Involved in Carbon Source-Dependent Expression of Extracellular Hydrolases;425
10.2.3.1;A. Carbohydrate-Related Transcription Factors;425
10.2.3.2;B. Genome Mining for Transcription Factors;426
10.2.3.3;C. Transcriptional Regulation of Transcription Factors on Their Substrate;426
10.2.3.4;D. Clustering of Transcription Factors in the Genome with Target Genes;426
10.2.3.5;E. Phylogenetic Analysis of Zn(II) Transcription Factors;427
10.2.3.6;F. Novel Directions for Transcription Regulator Research;429
10.2.4;IV. Outlook;429
10.2.5;References;430
10.3;21: New Trends in Fungal Biooxidation;434
10.3.1;I. Introduction;434
10.3.2;II. Peroxidases;435
10.3.2.1;A. Peroxygenases;435
10.3.2.1.1;1. Chloroperoxidase;435
10.3.2.1.2;2. Mushroom Peroxygenases;437
10.3.2.1.3;3. Artificial Peroxygenases (Peroxygenase Mimics);443
10.3.2.2;B. Dye-Decolorizing Peroxidases;445
10.3.3;III. Oxidases;446
10.3.3.1;A. Laccase;447
10.3.3.1.1;1. General Aspects;447
10.3.3.1.2;2. Biofuel Cells Using Laccase;447
10.3.3.1.3;3. Laccase in Organic Synthesis and Polymer Chemistry;448
10.3.3.2;B. Tyrosinase;450
10.3.4;IV. Conclusions and Outlook;452
10.3.5;References;453
10.4;22: Fungal Soil Bioremediation: Developments Towards Large-Scale Applications;459
10.4.1;I. Introduction;459
10.4.2;II. Groups of Fungi Used in Bioremediation;460
10.4.3;III. Soil Contaminants Degraded by Fungi;461
10.4.3.1;A. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons;461
10.4.3.2;B. Halo- and Nitroaromatic Compounds;461
10.4.3.3;C. Agrochemicals;462
10.4.3.4;D. Endocrine Disrupters;462
10.4.3.5;E. Pharmaceuticals, Personal Care Products and Dyes;462
10.4.3.6;F. Other Contaminants;462
10.4.4;IV. Methods;463
10.4.4.1;A. Screening;465
10.4.4.2;B. Inoculation;466
10.4.4.3;C. Small-Scale Trials;468
10.4.4.4;D. Large-Scale Trials;469
10.4.5;V. Conclusions;471
10.4.6;References;471
11;Biosystematic Index;476
12;Subject Index;484