Iskander Modelling with Transparent Soils

Visualizing Soil Structure Interaction and Multi Phase Flow, Non-Intrusively
1. Auflage 2010
ISBN: 978-3-642-02501-3
Verlag: Springer
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: Adobe DRM (»Systemvoraussetzungen)

E-Book, Englisch, 335 Seiten

up with automated systems for assessment of road condition. For example, Haas et al (1997) developed an automated algorithm for detecting cracks and joints con- tion. Smith and Lin (1997) developed a fuzzy logic classification scheme for pavement distress condition. Oh et al (1997) developed iterative algorithm for overcoming noisy images of roads due to shadows and low light conditions. Koustsopoulos and Mishalani (1997) presented a model for distress assessment in a local (microscopic) and global (macroscopic) level using captured images of pavement. Lee (1993) presented a comparison between 15 different imaging al- rithms used in crack detection. Ground Penetration Radar (GPR) has also been used for pavement assessment. Special computer algorithms were developed for quick analysis of GPR data (Adeli & Hung 1993 and Maser 1996). Heiler and McNeil (1997) proposed a modified system for analyzing the GPR data using an artificial neural network (ANN). 2.3.2 Traffic Analysis and Control Currently imaging systems provide essential data for transportation and traffic engineering planning (Anon 1999). Machine vision techniques were introduced to intersection traffic signal control in the late 1970’s (Chou and Sethi 1993). No- days, many systems have been developed all over the world for traffic analysis and control applications, in addition to image based systems for traffic violations. Nallamathu and Wang (1997) developed one of the first automated systems for license plate recognition using character recognition algorithm for the use in monitoring violators at toll stations and many other traffic applications.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Iskander, Magued

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Contents;6
2;Introduction to Transparent Soils;17
2.1;Background;17
2.2;Available Transparent Soils;18
2.3;Objectives;19
2.4;Organization of This Book;19
2.5;References;19
3;Optical Techniques in Geotechnical Engineering;21
3.1;Introduction;21
3.2;Imaging Applications in Geotechnical Engineering;21
3.2.1;Soil Stress Measurements;22
3.2.2;Soil Deformation Measurements;22
3.2.3;Soil Fabric and Void Characterization;25
3.2.4;Soil Classification and Grain Size Distribution Analysis;27
3.2.5;Imaging Techniques in Geoenvironmental Studies;28
3.3;Example Applications of Imaging Techniques in Civil Engineering;28
3.3.1;Pavement Crack Measurement;28
3.3.2;Traffic Analysis and Control;29
3.3.3;Concrete Morphology and Micro-cracks;29
3.4;Summary;29
3.5;References;30
4;Introduction to Light and Optics;35
4.1;Introduction;35
4.2;Nature of Light;35
4.3;Propagation of Light in a Matter;36
4.4;Refraction of Light;37
4.5;Reflection of Light;38
4.6;Light in a Granular Medium;38
4.7;Basic Definitions;39
4.7.1;Speckle Effect;39
4.7.2;Coherent Light;39
4.7.3;Polarized Light;39
4.7.4;Polarizers;40
4.7.5;Birefringence;40
4.8;References;41
5;Optical Measurement of Strain and Stress;42
5.1;Introduction;42
5.2;Target Tracking;43
5.2.1;Digital Image Correlation;43
5.3;Interferometry;44
5.3.1;Holographic Interferometry (HI);45
5.3.2;Speckle Interferometry;46
5.4;Photoelasticity;52
5.4.1;Theory;52
5.4.2;Photoelasticity of Transparent Synthetic Soils;54
5.5;Cross Tomography;56
5.5.1;Theory;56
5.5.2;Cross Tomography in Transparent Synthetic Soils;57
5.6;Summary;58
5.7;References;58
6;Geotechnical Properties of Transparent Silica Powders;60
6.1;Introduction;60
6.1.1;What Is Amorphous Silica?;60
6.1.2;Use of Amorphous Silica in Experimental Modeling;61
6.2;Material Description;62
6.2.1;Physical Properties of Amorphous Silica;62
6.2.2;Matched Refractive Index Pore Fluids;63
6.3;Sample Preparation;64
6.4;Undrained Triaxial Tests;65
6.4.1;Normally Consolidated Behavior;67
6.4.2;Overconsolidated Behavior;72
6.5;Drained Triaxial Tests;76
6.6;Elastic Properties of Amorphous Silica;81
6.7;Consolidation Properties;82
6.7.1;Consolidation Indices;83
6.7.2;Consolidation Behavior;85
6.7.3;Settlement Components;86
6.7.4;Pore Pressure Dissipation;87
6.7.5;Compression Isochrones;92
6.7.6;Ko vs. Isotropic Consolidation;93
6.8;Permeability Properties;94
6.8.1;Permeability with Void Ratio;94
6.8.2;Permeability with Vertical Pressure;94
6.8.3;Permeability with Material Type;95
6.9;Conclusions;96
6.10;References;96
7;Geotechnical Properties of Silica Gels;100
7.1;Background;100
7.2;What Is Silica Gel?;100
7.3;Basic Chemical Properties and Chemical Preparation;102
7.4;Physical Properties;103
7.4.1;Particle Structure;103
7.4.2;Specific Gravity and Unit Weight;103
7.4.3;Void Ratio;104
7.4.4;Particle Size Distribution and Uniformity;104
7.5;Static Geotechnical Properties of Silica Gel;105
7.5.1;Shear Strength;105
7.5.2;Modulus of Elasticity;113
7.5.3;Compressibility;117
7.5.4;Hydraulic Conductivity;119
7.6;Dynamic Properties of Silica Gel;122
7.6.1;Testing Program and Sample Preparation;122
7.6.2;Shear Modulus of Silica Gel;124
7.6.3;Damping Ratio of Silica Gel;127
7.6.4;Comparison with Results of Sands and Gravels;128
7.7;Modeling Capabilities of Transparent Soils;128
7.8;Recommended Future Work;128
7.9;References;129
8;Geotechnical Properties of Aquabeads;131
8.1;Introduction;131
8.2;What Is Aquabeads?;132
8.3;Grain Size Distribution;134
8.4;Hydraulic Conductivity of Aquabeads;135
8.5;Compressibility of Aquabeads;137
8.5.1;Void Ratio;137
8.5.2;Consolidation Behavior;137
8.5.3;Consolidation Indices;138
8.6;Strength of Aquabeads;141
8.6.1;Yield Stress;141
8.6.2;Yield Stress Measurement;142
8.6.3;Yield Stress Calculation;142
8.6.4;Yield Strength of Aquabeads;143
8.6.5;Comparison to the Yield Stresses of Natural Soils;146
8.7;Conclusions;148
8.8;References;148
9;Digital Image Correlation;150
9.1;Introduction;150
9.2;Digital Imaging;150
9.2.1;Digital Image Format;150
9.2.2;Digital Image Resolution;152
9.2.3;Digital Image Compression;152
9.3;Motion Estimation Methods;152
9.3.1;The Fourier Method;153
9.3.2;The Differential Method;153
9.3.3;The Matching Method;154
9.4;Digital Image Correlation;155
9.4.1;Discrete Cross-Correlation;155
9.4.2;Zero-Meaned Normalized Cross-Correlation;155
9.4.3;Execution of Cross-Correlation Using FFT;157
9.4.4;How DIC Works;158
9.4.5;Sub-Pixel Resolution;162
9.5;DIC Error Analysis;162
9.5.1;Conventional DIC;162
9.5.2;Error Analysis;163
9.5.3;Particle Density;163
9.5.4;Interrogation Windows Size;164
9.6;Adaptive Cross-Correlation;164
9.6.1;Variable Window Size;165
9.6.2;Window Offset;165
9.6.3;ACC Procedure;165
9.7;Comparison between DIC and ACC;167
9.7.1;Verification of DIC and ACC Algorithms;167
9.7.2;Performance of DIC and ACC Algorithms for Physical Movements;172
9.8;Conclusions;175
9.9;References;176
10;Application of DIC for Measuring Deformations in Transparent Soils;178
10.1;Introduction and Motivation;178
10.2;Setup for DIC in Transparent Synthetic Soil Models;179
10.2.1;Transparent Soil Model;180
10.2.2;Laser Beam;181
10.2.3;Line Generator;181
10.2.4;Digital Camera;181
10.2.5;Correlation Algorithm;182
10.3;Calibration of DIC for Deformation Measurement in Transparent Soils;182
10.3.1;Calibration Methodology;182
10.3.2;Calibration Results;183
10.4;Other Errors;186
10.4.1;Reflection;186
10.4.2;Alignment Error;186
10.4.3;Focus Errors;187
10.4.4;Out-of-Plane and Rotational Movement Errors;187
10.5;Application of DIC in Modeling Soil Structure Interaction;187
10.5.1;DIC Analysis Results;187
10.5.2;Comparison with FEM;188
10.6;System Limitations;191
10.7;Conclusions;191
10.8;References;191
11;Validation of Measured 2D Deformations;193
11.1;Introduction;193
11.2;Test Program;194
11.2.1;Proposed Method;194
11.2.2;Set-Up;195
11.2.3;Test Program;195
11.3;Comparison under Dry Loose Condition;196
11.3.1;Failure Mode;196
11.3.2;Displacement Field;197
11.3.3;Maximum Horizontal Displacement;199
11.3.4;Settlement Distribution;201
11.3.5;Strain Field;202
11.3.6;Volume Strain;204
11.3.7;Vertical Strain;209
11.4;Comparison under Dry Dense Condition;210
11.4.1;Settlement Comparison;213
11.4.2;Maximum Horizontal Displacement;213
11.5;Comparison under Saturated Dense Condition;216
11.5.1;2D Deformation Measurement in Transparent Soil;216
11.5.2;Model Preparation;217
11.5.3;Displacement Field;217
11.5.4;Vertical Displacement;218
11.5.5;Maximum Horizontal Displacement;221
11.5.6;Maximum Shear Strain;224
11.6;Modeling Stratified Soils Using Transparent Surrogates;226
11.6.1;Modeling Loose “Sand” Over Dense “Sand”;227
11.6.2;Modeling “Sand” over Soft “Clay”;229
11.7;Deformations Inside Transparent Synthetic Soil Models;232
11.7.1;Internal Deformations in Silica Gel Representing Sand;232
11.7.2;Internal Deformations in Amorphous Silica Powder Representing Clay;233
11.8;Conclusions and Recommendations;236
11.9;References;236
12;3D Deformation Measurement;238
12.1;Introduction;238
12.2;3D Measurements;238
12.2.1;Methodology;239
12.2.2;Test Setup;240
12.2.3;Digital Image Processing;242
12.2.4;Test Procedure;243
12.3;Displacement Field Analysis;247
12.4;Strain Field Analysis;252
12.5;Displacement and Strain Development;257
12.5.1;Displacement Field;257
12.5.2;Strain Field;258
12.6;Error Analysis;260
12.6.1;Result Analysis;260
12.6.2;Image Distortion Analysis;264
12.6.3;Speckle Stability over Time;265
12.6.4;Linear Stage Error;265
12.7;Conclusions and Recommendations;268
12.8;References;268
13;2D Flow in Transparent Synthetic Soils;270
13.1;Introduction;270
13.2;Flow Tests Using Silica Gel;271
13.2.1;Materials;271
13.2.2;Sample Preparation;272
13.2.3;Flow Equipment Setup;272
13.2.4;Optical Measurements;272
13.2.5;Calibration of Concentration;273
13.2.6;Chromatographic Separation;274
13.2.7;Image Analysis;276
13.2.8;Breakthrough Curve;280
13.2.9;Characterizing the Properties of Silica Gel;281
13.3;Flow Test Using Fused Silica;283
13.3.1;Transparency Degradation in Silica Gel;283
13.3.2;Fused Silica;284
13.3.3;Immiscible Flow Test;287
13.4;Flow Tests Using Aquabeads;288
13.4.1;Materials;288
13.4.2;Concentration Calibration;288
13.4.3;Packing of Aquabeads for 2D Flow Test;288
13.4.4;Flow System Setup and Effluent Collection;289
13.4.5;Optical System and Image Analysis;290
13.4.6;Miscible Flow Tests;290
13.4.7;Multi-phase Flow;293
13.4.8;Hydraulic Characteristics of Aquabeads;293
13.5;Modeling of 2D Surfactant Flushing Using Aquabeads;296
13.5.1;Phase Behavior Tests;297
13.5.2;Test Setup;298
13.5.3;Recovery of Mineral Oil;298
13.5.4;Recovery of Motor Oil;299
13.6;Conclusions;302
13.7;References;302
14;Epilogue;304
14.1;The Transparent Soil Story;304
14.2;Capabilities of Available Transparent Soils;306
14.3;Limitations of the Technology;306
14.4;Recommendations for Future Research;307
14.5;Potential Applications;308
14.6;References;309
15;Appendix;310
16;References;324
17;Index;338