Jakhu National Regulation of Space Activities

1. Auflage 2010
ISBN: 978-90-481-9008-9
Verlag: Springer Netherlands
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, Band 5, 500 Seiten

Reihe: Space Regulations Library

The legal regime of outer space, as enshrined in the Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space (General Assembly Resolution 1962 (XVIII), adopted in 1963, and in the 1967 Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies, while prohibiting the appropriation of space by any means, envisages exploration for the bene?t and in the interest of all countries on a basis of equality and in accordance with international law. Freedom of scienti?c investigation is also contemplated. Elaborating on these instruments, the Assembly in 1996 adopted the Declaration on International Cooperation in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space (RES 51/122), in which it called for heightened international co-operation, with part- ular attention to be given to the bene?t for and the interests of developing countries and countries with nascent space programmes. Thus, it is self-evident that the outer space regime, including the 1972 Liability Convention, envisages the conduct of national activities 'for the bene?t and in the interests of all countries, irrespective of their degree of economic or scienti?c dev- opment'. In this regard, Article 6 of the 1967 Treaty not only provides for national activities in outer space, but for international responsibility whether such activities are carried out by governmental agencies or non-governmental entities, and aims at ensuring that national activities are conducted in conformity with the Treaty.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Jakhu, Ram S.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Foreword;6
2;Preface;8
3;Acknowledgements;11
4;Contents;12
5;Contributors;14
6;About the Editor;16
7;About the Authors;17
8;1 International Space Law: A Basis for National Regulation;26
8.1;1.1 Introduction;26
8.2;1.2 Outer Space Treaty;30
8.3;1.3 Liability Convention;34
8.4;1.4 Registration Convention;35
8.5;1.5 Application of the Concept of the Launching State;37
8.6;1.6 International Telecommunication Law;38
8.7;1.7 Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines;42
8.8;1.8 Export Controls;43
8.9;1.9 Conclusion;46
9;2 Regulation of Space Activities in Argentina;47
9.1;2.1 General Philosophy and Processes of Government Regulation;47
9.1.1;2.1.1 Law-Making Processes;47
9.1.2;2.1.2 Basic Principles of National Laws;48
9.1.3;2.1.3 Organization of National Space Activities;49
9.2;2.2 Legal Issues Related to Launch Services (Space Transportation Systems);50
9.2.1;2.2.1 Safety Concerns;52
9.2.2;2.2.2 Continuing Supervision;53
9.2.3;2.2.3 Argentine Space Object Registry;53
9.3;2.3 Legal Issues Related to Satellite Telecommunications, Including Satellite Broadcasting;54
9.3.1;2.3.1 General Satellite Telecommunications Framework;55
9.3.2;2.3.2 Licensing of Private Satellite Telecommunications Operators (Both National and Foreign);56
9.3.2.1;2.3.2.1 Geostationary Satellite Services;56
9.3.2.2;2.3.2.2 Non Geostationary Satellites;59
9.4;2.4 Conclusion;59
10;3 Regulation of Space Activities in Australia;60
10.1;3.1 General Philosophy and Processes of Government and Legal Regulation;60
10.1.1;3.1.1 The Australian Legal System;60
10.1.2;3.1.2 Australia's Early Involvement in Space Activities;61
10.1.3;3.1.3 Space Policy in Australia;63
10.2;3.2 Legal Issues Related to Launch Services;67
10.2.1;3.2.1 History and Objectives;67
10.2.2;3.2.2 Broad Outline of the Legislation;71
10.2.2.1;3.2.2.1 Establishment of the Space Licensing and Safety Office;75
10.2.2.2;3.2.2.2 Launch Safety Officer;76
10.2.2.3;3.2.2.3 Registration;77
10.2.2.4;3.2.2.4 Liability;77
10.2.2.5;3.2.2.5 Investigations;79
10.2.2.6;3.2.2.6 Some (Relatively) Minor Issues Requiring Clarification;79
10.3;3.3 Satellite Data Distribution Policy;80
10.3.1;3.3.1 International Space-Related Agreements;80
10.4;3.4 Legal Issues Related to Satellite Telecommunications, Including Satellite Broadcasting;80
10.5;References;82
11;4 Regulation of Space Activities in Brazil;83
11.1;4.1 Introduction;83
11.2;4.2 National Space Law;84
11.3;4.3 Brazilian Space Law;84
11.4;4.4 First Phase of Brazilian Space Law;85
11.5;4.5 Second Phase of Brazilian Space Law;88
11.6;4.6 Third Phase of Brazilian Space Laws;90
11.7;4.7 Brazilian Launch Licensing and Authorizing Regimes;93
11.7.1;4.7.1 The Shorter Way;94
11.7.2;4.7.2 Details of the Administrative Edicts;95
11.7.3;4.7.3 Focus;96
11.7.4;4.7.4 Definitions of License and Authorization;96
11.7.5;4.7.5 Definition of Space Launching;97
11.7.6;4.7.6 Documents Required;97
11.7.7;4.7.7 Liability Issues;98
11.7.8;4.7.8 Foreign Legal Persons: Special Requirements;99
11.7.9;4.7.9 Settlement of Disputes;99
11.7.10;4.7.10 Business Plan;100
11.8;4.8 Regulations on Space Safety;100
11.9;4.9 Brazilian National General Law on Space Activities?;101
11.10;References;101
12;5 Regulation of Space Activities in Canada;103
12.1;5.1 Introduction;103
12.2;5.2 Constitutional Basis of Canadian Space Regulatory Regime;104
12.3;5.3 Organisation of Space Activities;106
12.4;5.4 Launch Activities;107
12.5;5.5 Export Controls;109
12.6;5.6 Satellite Communications;113
12.7;5.7 Remote Sensing;118
12.8;5.8 Human Space Activities and Microgravity Research;122
12.9;5.9 Military Uses of Outer Space;126
12.10;5.10 Canadas International Responsibility;128
12.11;5.11 Conclusion and Final Remarks;129
13;6 Regulation of Space Activities in France;130
13.1;6.1 General Philosophy and Processes of Government Regulation;130
13.1.1;6.1.1 Law-Making Processes;130
13.1.2;6.1.2 Basic Principles of National Laws;130
13.1.3;6.1.3 Organization of National Space Activities;131
13.2;6.2 Legal Issues Related to Launch Services (Space Transportation Systems);132
13.2.1;6.2.1 Licensing of Launch Services Carried Out by Private Enterprises;132
13.2.2;6.2.2 Competition in Launch Services;133
13.2.3;6.2.3 National Security Concerns;133
13.3;6.3 Legal Issues Related to Satellite Telecommunications, Including Satellite Broadcasting;134
13.3.1;6.3.1 Licensing of Private Satellite Telecommunications Operators (Both National and Foreign);134
13.3.1.1;6.3.1.1 Use of Satellite Frequencies;134
13.3.1.2;6.3.1.2 Provision of Telecommunications Network and Services;135
13.3.2;6.3.2 Foreign Investment;136
13.3.3;6.3.3 Competition;136
13.3.4;6.3.4 Interconnections;137
13.3.5;6.3.5 Universal Access;137
13.3.6;6.3.6 Rate Regulation;137
13.3.7;6.3.7 Content Regulation (Including Privacy);138
13.3.7.1;6.3.7.1 Privacy;138
13.3.7.2;6.3.7.2 Content;139
13.4;6.4 Earth Observation Services, Including Data Processing and Distribution;140
13.4.1;6.4.1 Licensing of Remote Sensing Satellite Operators;140
13.4.2;6.4.2 Data Distribution;140
13.4.3;6.4.3 National Security Concerns;141
13.5;6.5 Intellectual Property and Transfer of Technology;142
13.5.1;6.5.1 Acquisition of Intellectual Property Rights;142
13.5.2;6.5.2 Mechanism for Exploiting IP Rights;142
13.5.3;6.5.3 Trade and Transfer of Technology;142
13.5.4;6.5.4 National Legal Barriers to International Transfer of Space Technology;142
13.6;6.6 Satellite Navigational Services;143
14;7 Regulation of Space Activities in Germany;144
14.1;7.1 General Philosophy and Processes of Government Regulations;144
14.1.1;7.1.1 Law-Making Processes;144
14.1.2;7.1.2 Basic Principles of National Law;148
14.1.3;7.1.3 Organization of National Space Activities;148
14.2;7.2 Legal Issues Related to Launch Services (Space Transportation Systems);151
14.2.1;7.2.1 Licensing of Launch Services by Private Enterprises;151
14.2.2;7.2.2 Competition in Launch Services;152
14.2.3;7.2.3 National Security Concerns;153
14.3;7.3 Legal Issues Related to Satellite Telecommunications, Including Satellite Broadcasting;153
14.3.1;7.3.1 Licensing of Private Satellite Telecommunications Operators;155
14.3.2;7.3.2 Foreign Investment;157
14.3.3;7.3.3 Competition;158
14.3.4;7.3.4 Interconnections;158
14.3.5;7.3.5 Universal Service;160
14.3.6;7.3.6 Rate Regulation;162
14.3.7;7.3.7 Content Regulation (Including Privacy);163
14.4;7.4 Earth Observation Services, Including Data Processing and Distribution;163
14.4.1;7.4.1 Licensing of Remote Sensing Satellite Operators;163
14.4.2;7.4.2 Distribution of Data;164
14.4.3;7.4.3 National Security Concerns;164
14.5;7.5 Intellectual Property and Transfer of Technology;166
14.5.1;7.5.1 Acquisition of Intellectual Property Rights;167
14.5.2;7.5.2 National Legal Barriers to International Transfer of Space Technology;171
14.6;7.6 Satellite Navigational Services;172
14.7;7.7 Summary;172
15;8 Regulation of Space Activities in India;174
15.1;8.1 Introduction;174
15.2;8.2 Decision-Making Process and International Obligations;176
15.2.1;8.2.1 Organization of and Decision-Making Process Related to Space Activities;176
15.2.2;8.2.2 International Obligations, the Constitution of India and State Practice;177
15.3;8.3 Legal Issues Related to Launch Services;184
15.3.1;8.3.1 Licensing of Launch Services for Private Enterprises;185
15.3.2;8.3.2 Competition in Launch Services;186
15.3.3;8.3.3 National Security Concerns;187
15.4;8.4 Legal Issues Related to Satellite Telecommunications and Broadcasting;190
15.4.1;8.4.1 Satellite Telecommunications;193
15.4.1.1;8.4.1.1 Licensing of Private Satellite Telecommunications Operators;193
15.4.1.2;8.4.1.2 Basic Licensing Requirements for Satellite Telecommunications;193
15.4.1.3;8.4.1.3 Leasing Foreign Satellite Capacity;194
15.4.1.4;8.4.1.4 Private Indian Satellite Systems;194
15.4.1.5;8.4.1.5 Telecom Service License Categories;195
15.4.2;8.4.2 Satellite Broadcasting;197
15.4.2.1;8.4.2.1 Broadcasting Service Licenses;197
15.4.2.2;8.4.2.2 License for Up-Linking from India;197
15.4.2.3;8.4.2.3 License for Direct-to-Home (DTH) Broadcasting Service;198
15.4.2.4;8.4.2.4 Content Regulation;199
15.4.2.5;8.4.2.5 Very Small Aperture Terminal (VSAT) Operators;200
15.4.2.6;8.4.2.6 Global Mobile Personal Communications Via Satellite;201
15.4.2.7;8.4.2.7 National Security Concerns;201
15.5;8.5 Legal Issues Relating to Remote Sensing/Earth Observation Satellite Services;202
15.5.1;8.5.1 The UN Principles Relating to Remote Sensing of Earth from Outer Space;202
15.5.2;8.5.2 Data Distribution Policy in India;202
15.5.3;8.5.3 National Security Concerns;204
15.6;8.6 Legal Issues Relating to Satellite Navigational Services;205
15.6.1;8.6.1 GPS and GAGAN;206
15.6.2;8.6.2 Indian Regional Navigation Satellite System;206
15.6.3;8.6.3 Participation in GLONASS;207
15.6.4;8.6.4 Participation in Galileo;207
15.6.5;8.6.5 International Legal Regime for GNSS;208
15.6.5.1;8.6.5.1 Sovereignty;208
15.6.5.2;8.6.5.2 Liability;209
15.6.6;8.6.6 Application of International Legal Regime to GAGAN and IRNSS;209
15.6.7;8.6.7 Current Indian Legal Regime Relating to Aeronautical Navigation Services;211
15.7;8.7 Intellectual Property Rights and Transfer of Technology;214
15.7.1;8.7.1 Acquisition of Intellectual Property Rights;214
15.7.2;8.7.2 Mechanism for Exploiting Intellectual Property Rights;215
15.7.3;8.7.3 Trade and Transfer of Technology;216
15.7.4;8.7.4 National Barriers to International Transfer of Space Technology;217
15.8;8.8 Conclusion;219
16;9 Regulation of Space Activities in Japan;220
16.1;9.1 General Philosophy and Process for Government Regulation;220
16.1.1;9.1.1 Law-Making Process;220
16.1.2;9.1.2 Basic Principles of National Law;221
16.1.3;9.1.3 Organization of National Space Activities;222
16.1.3.1;9.1.3.1 A Primary Agency to Engage in Space Development: Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA);222
16.1.3.2;9.1.3.2 Entity to Decide National Space Policy: From Space Activities Commission (SAC) to Council for Science and Technology Policy (CSTP);223
16.1.3.3;9.1.3.3 Other Agencies Involved in the Development and Use of Space;225
16.1.3.4;9.1.3.4 Authorization and Supervision of JAXA;226
16.1.4;9.1.4 Constitutional Matters (Jurisdiction Over Space Activities) and Implementation of International Treaties in Japan;228
16.2;9.2 Legal Issues Related to Launch Services (Space Transportation Systems);228
16.2.1;9.2.1 Licensing of Launch Services Provided by Private Enterprises;228
16.2.2;9.2.2 Competition in Launch Services;233
16.2.3;9.2.3 National Security Concerns;234
16.2.3.1;9.2.3.1 Export Control Laws and Policy;234
16.2.3.2;9.2.3.2 Inward Direct Investment;236
16.2.3.3;9.2.3.3 Peaceful Uses: From Non-Military to Non-Aggressive Uses;237
16.3;9.3 Legal Issues Related to Satellite Telecommunications, Including Satellite Broadcasting;238
16.3.1;9.3.1 Licensing of Private Satellite Telecommunications Operators (Both National and Foreign);238
16.3.2;9.3.2 Foreign Investments;240
16.3.3;9.3.3 Competition, Interconnection, Universal Access, and Rate Regulation;241
16.3.4;9.3.4 Content Regulation (Including Privacy);241
16.4;9.4 Earth Observation Services, Including Data Processing and Distribution;243
16.5;9.5 Intellectual Property and Transfer of Technology;243
16.6;9.6 Satellite Navigation Services;243
17;10 Regulation of Space Activities in The Netherlands;245
17.1;10.1 The General Background: The Netherlands and Outer Space;245
17.2;10.2 The Specific Background: The Netherlands and International Space Law;246
17.3;10.3 New Developments: The Changing Dutch Spacescape;249
17.4;10.4 Mircorp and New Skies Satellites;251
17.5;10.5 The Dutch Space Activities Act;256
17.5.1;10.5.1 Chapter 1: General Provisions;256
17.5.2;10.5.2 Chapter 2: Licences;258
17.5.3;10.5.3 Chapter 3: Registry of Space Objects;260
17.5.4;10.5.4 Chapter 4: Redress;262
17.5.5;10.5.5 Chapter 5: Enforcement;263
17.5.6;10.5.6 Chapter 6: Amendments to Other Legislation;263
17.5.7;10.5.7 Chapter 7: Concluding Provisions;264
17.6;10.6 The Netherlands: A New Gateway to Outer Space?;264
18;11 Regulation of Space Activities in the Peoples Republic of China;266
18.1;11.1 General Philosophy and Processes of Government Regulation;266
18.1.1;11.1.1 Law-Making Processes;266
18.1.2;11.1.2 Basic Principles of National Laws;268
18.1.3;11.1.3 Organization of National Space Activities;269
18.2;11.2 Legal Issues Related to Launch Services (Space Transportation Systems);270
18.2.1;11.2.1 Licensing of Launch Services by Private Enterprises;270
18.2.2;11.2.2 Competition in Launch Services;271
18.3;11.3 Legal Issues Related to Satellite Telecommunications, Including Satellite Broadcasting;272
18.3.1;11.3.1 Licensing of Private Satellite Telecommunications Operators (Both National and Foreign);272
18.3.2;11.3.2 Foreign Investment;274
18.3.3;11.3.3 Competition;276
18.3.4;11.3.4 Interconnections;278
18.3.5;11.3.5 Universal Access;278
18.3.6;11.3.6 Rate Regulation;279
18.3.7;11.3.7 Content Regulation (Including Privacy);280
18.3.8;11.3.8 Intellectual Property and Transfer of Technology;281
18.3.8.1;11.3.8.1 Acquisition of Intellectual Property Rights;281
18.3.8.2;11.3.8.2 Mechanism of Exploiting IP Rights;282
18.3.8.3;11.3.8.3 National Legal Barriers to International Transfer of Space Technology;282
18.4;11.4 Other Matters;283
19;12 Regulation of Space Activities in South Africa;285
19.1;12.1 Introduction;285
19.2;12.2 General Philosophy and Processes of Government Regulation;290
19.2.1;12.2.1 Law-Making Process;290
19.2.2;12.2.2 Basic Principles of National Laws and Their Interaction with International Law;291
19.2.3;12.2.3 Organisation of National Space Law;292
19.2.3.1;12.2.3.1 The Space Affairs Act Act 84 of 1993. (''The Space Affairs Act'');293
19.2.3.2;12.2.3.2 The Non-Proliferation of Weapons of Mass Destruction Act Act 87 of 1993. (''The Non-Proliferation Act'');293
19.2.3.3;12.2.3.3 The National Conventional Arms Control Act Act 41 of 2002. (''Conventional Arms Control Act'');294
19.2.3.4;12.2.3.4 The Spatial Data Infrastructure Act Act 54 of 2003. (''Spatial Data Infrastructure Act'');294
19.2.3.5;12.2.3.5 The Electronic Communications Act Act 36 of 2005. (''Electronic Communications Act'');294
19.2.3.6;12.2.3.6 The Astronomy Geographic Advantage Act Act 21 of 2007. (Astronomy Geographic Advantage Act);295
19.2.3.7;12.2.3.7 The Technology Innovation Agency Act Act 26 of 2008. (Technology Innovation Agency Act);296
19.2.3.8;12.2.3.8 The South African National Space Agency Act Act 36 of 2008. (South African National Space Agency Act);297
19.3;12.3 Legal Issues Related to Launch Services (Space Transportation Systems);298
19.3.1;12.3.1 Licensing of Launch Services Provided by Private Enterprises;298
19.3.2;12.3.2 Competition in Launch Services;299
19.4;12.4 Legal Issues Related to Satellite Telecommunications, Including Satellite Broadcasting;299
19.4.1;12.4.1 The Licensing of Private Satellite Telecommunications Operators, including Satellite Broadcasting;299
19.4.2;12.4.2 The Licensing Process;304
19.4.3;12.4.3 Foreign Investment;307
19.4.4;12.4.4 Competition;311
19.4.5;12.4.5 Interconnection;316
19.4.6;12.4.6 Universal Access;318
19.4.7;12.4.7 Rate Regulation;321
19.4.8;12.4.8 Content Regulation;321
19.4.8.1;12.4.8.1 Codes of Conduct;322
19.4.8.2;12.4.8.2 Local Content;322
19.4.8.3;12.4.8.3 TV Sports Rights;323
19.4.8.4;12.4.8.4 Advertising;324
19.4.8.5;12.4.8.5 Election Broadcasting;324
19.4.8.6;12.4.8.6 ''Must Carry'' Obligations;324
19.4.8.7;12.4.8.7 Channel Authorisation;325
19.5;12.5 Earth Observation Services, Including Data Processing and Distribution;325
19.5.1;12.5.1 Licensing of Remote Sensing Satellite Operators;325
19.5.2;12.5.2 Distribution of Data;325
19.6;12.6 Intellectual Property and Transfer of Technology;328
19.6.1;12.6.1 Acquisition and Exploitation of Intellectual Property Rights;328
19.6.1.1;12.6.1.1 Copyright Act;328
19.6.1.2;12.6.1.2 The Designs Act;329
19.6.1.3;12.6.1.3 Patents Act;329
19.6.1.4;12.6.1.4 The Trade Marks Act;329
19.6.1.5;12.6.1.5 The Spatial Data Infrastructure Act (''The SDI Act'');330
19.6.1.6;12.6.1.6 The Intellectual Property Rights from Publicly Financed Research and Development Act (''The Intellectual Property Rights Act'');330
19.6.1.7;12.6.1.7 The Technology Innovation Agency Act;331
19.6.2;12.6.2 Barriers to Trade and Transfer of Technology;331
19.7;12.7 Conclusion;332
20;13 Regulation of Space Activities in the Russian Federation;333
20.1;13.1 History and General Overview;333
20.1.1;13.1.1 Space Legislation History;333
20.1.2;13.1.2 Current Legislation;334
20.1.3;13.1.3 Hierarchy of Norms Governing Space Activities in Russia;334
20.2;13.2 Principles and Overview of the Current Programmes;335
20.3;13.3 Authorities in Charge of the Regulation of Space Activities in Russia;336
20.3.1;13.3.1 The President;336
20.3.2;13.3.2 The Government;337
20.3.3;13.3.3 The Federal Space Agency;337
20.3.4;13.3.4 The Ministry of Defence;338
20.4;13.4 Law on Space Activities: An Overview of the Provisions;339
20.4.1;13.4.1 Space Activities: Notion, Goals and Principles;339
20.4.2;13.4.2 Economic Conditions of Space Activities;341
20.4.3;13.4.3 Space Object: Notion, Rules Regarding Jurisdiction and Flight;341
20.4.4;13.4.4 Space Infrastructure;343
20.4.5;13.4.5 Cosmonauts;343
20.4.6;13.4.6 Licensing of Space Activities;344
20.4.7;13.4.7 Safety of Space Activities;345
20.4.8;13.4.8 International Cooperation;345
20.4.9;13.4.9 Liability;346
20.5;13.5 Other Laws and Regulations;346
20.5.1;13.5.1 Regulations Regarding Licensing: Procedure and Requirements;346
20.5.2;13.5.2 Regulation Regarding Acquisition, Use and Provision of Remote Sensing Data;347
20.5.3;13.5.3 Regulation Regarding the Registration of Space Objects;349
20.6;13.6 Conclusion;350
20.7;13.7 Annex;350
21;14 Regulation of Space Activities in Ukraine;352
21.1;14.1 General Philosophy and Processes of Government Regulation;352
21.1.1;14.1.1 Law-Making Process;352
21.1.2;14.1.2 Basic Principles of National Laws;353
21.1.3;14.1.3 Organization of National Space Activities;355
21.2;14.2 Legal Issues Related to Launch Services (Space Transportation Systems);356
21.2.1;14.2.1 Licensing of Launch Services Provided by Private Enterprises;356
21.2.2;14.2.2 Competition in Launch Services;357
21.2.3;14.2.3 National Security Concerns;358
21.3;14.3 Legal Issues Related to Satellite Telecommunications, Including Satellite Broadcasting;359
21.3.1;14.3.1 Licensing of Private Satellite Telecommunication Operators (Both National and Foreign);360
21.3.2;14.3.2 Competition;361
21.3.3;14.3.3 Interconnection;362
21.3.4;14.3.4 Universal Access;363
21.3.5;14.3.5 Rate Regulation;364
21.3.6;14.3.6 Content Regulation (Including Privacy);365
21.3.6.1;14.3.6.1 Telecommunication Language;365
21.3.6.2;14.3.6.2 Time in the Area of Telecommunication;365
21.3.6.3;14.3.6.3 Protection of the Privacy of Telephone Communications, Telegraph and Other Correspondence, Safety of Telecommunications;365
21.3.6.4;14.3.6.4 Lands for Telecommunication Needs;366
21.3.6.5;14.3.6.5 Protection of Information About the Consumer;366
21.3.6.6;14.3.6.6 Protection of Consumers' Interests in Cases Where Operators or Providers Terminate Their Activities in Providing Telecommunication Services;366
21.3.6.7;14.3.6.7 Liability of Consumers of Telecommunication Services;367
21.4;14.4 Earth Observation Services, Including Data Processing and Distribution;367
21.4.1;14.4.1 Licensing of Remote Sensing Satellite Operators;367
21.4.2;14.4.2 Distribution of Data;368
21.4.3;14.4.3 National Security Concerns;369
21.5;14.5 Intellectual Property and Transfer of Technology;369
21.5.1;14.5.1 Acquisition of Intellectual Property Rights;369
21.5.2;14.5.2 Mechanism for Exploiting IP Rights;370
21.5.3;14.5.3 Trade and Transfer of Technology;370
21.5.4;14.5.4 National Legal Barriers to International Transfer of Space Technology;371
21.6;14.6 Satellite Navigation Services;372
22;15 Regulation of Space Activities in the United Kingdom;373
22.1;15.1 General Philosophy and Processes of Government Regulations;373
22.1.1;15.1.1 The United Kingdom Legal System;373
22.1.2;15.1.2 Background and Constitution;374
22.1.3;15.1.3 Organisation of National Space Activities;374
22.1.4;15.1.4 Law Governing Space Activity;375
22.2;15.2 Legal Issues Related to Launch Services (Space Transportation Systems);377
22.3;15.3 Legal Issues Related to Satellite Telecommunications, Including Satellite Broadcasting;378
22.3.1;15.3.1 Law Governing Satellite Communications;378
22.3.2;15.3.2 Management of Satellite Filings by Ofcom;381
22.3.2.1;15.3.2.1 Background;381
22.3.2.2;15.3.2.2 Cost Recovery by Ofcom;382
22.3.2.3;15.3.2.3 Due Diligence Requirements by Ofcom;383
22.3.2.4;15.3.2.4 Ofcom Action When Operator Relinquishes Filing;383
22.3.2.5;15.3.2.5 Non-Planned Frequency Assignment;384
22.3.2.6;15.3.2.6 Planned Frequency Assignment;384
22.4;15.4 Earth Observation Services, Including Data Processing and Distribution;385
22.4.1;15.4.1 National Security;385
22.4.2;15.4.2 Database Rights;386
22.4.3;15.4.3 Privacy;386
22.5;15.5 Intellectual Property and Transfer of Technology;386
22.5.1;15.5.1 Copyright and Database Right;386
22.5.2;15.5.2 Technology Transfer;387
22.6;15.6 Satellite Navigational Services;387
23;16 Overview of the United States Space Policy and Law;388
23.1;16.1 Introduction;388
23.2;16.2 Space Policies;389
23.2.1;16.2.1 Leadership;389
23.2.2;16.2.2 Cooperation;393
23.2.3;16.2.3 Peace;395
23.2.4;16.2.4 Defense;396
23.2.5;16.2.5 Science and Technology;400
23.2.6;16.2.6 Cost-Effectiveness;403
23.2.7;16.2.7 Commercialization;404
23.2.8;16.2.8 Environmental Protection;406
23.3;16.3 Space Law;408
23.3.1;16.3.1 The Regulation of Satellite Communications;408
23.3.1.1;16.3.1.1 The First Communications Systems;408
23.3.1.2;16.3.1.2 Domestic Satellites;410
23.3.1.3;16.3.1.3 Earth Stations;412
23.3.1.4;16.3.1.4 Direct Broadcasting;412
23.3.1.5;16.3.1.5 Satellite Transponder Sales;413
23.3.2;16.3.2 Export Controls;414
23.3.3;16.3.3 The Regulation of Commercial Space Launches and Facilities;416
23.4;16.4 Conclusion;418
24;17 Regulation of Private Launch Services in the United States;420
24.1;17.1 Introduction;420
24.2;17.2 Launch and Reentry Licensing and Regulation;420
24.2.1;17.2.1 General Licensing Procedures;422
24.2.2;17.2.2 Post-License Monitoring and Enforcement;423
24.2.3;17.2.3 Transferring a License;423
24.2.4;17.2.4 Safety Approvals;424
24.2.5;17.2.5 Launch and Reentry Licensing;425
24.2.5.1;17.2.5.1 Licensing Process;425
24.2.5.2;17.2.5.2 Post-License Requirements;426
24.2.6;17.2.6 Launch and Reentry Site Licensing;429
24.3;17.3 Competition in Launch Services;430
24.4;17.4 Export Controls;431
24.4.1;17.4.1 Department of State Regulations;432
24.4.2;17.4.2 EAA and EAR;434
25;18 Regulation of Satellite Communications in the United States;435
25.1;18.1 Introduction;435
25.2;18.2 Licensing of Private Communications Satellites;436
25.2.1;18.2.1 Fixed Satellite Service;437
25.2.1.1;18.2.1.1 Non-Geostationary Orbit;437
25.2.1.2;18.2.1.2 Geostationary Orbit;438
25.2.2;18.2.2 Mobile Satellite Service;440
25.2.3;18.2.3 Direct Broadcast Satellite Service;442
25.2.4;18.2.4 17/24 GHz BSS Spectrum;443
25.2.5;18.2.5 Satellite Digital Audio Radio Service;445
25.3;18.3 Regulation of Private Communication Satellite Operations;446
25.3.1;18.3.1 General Obligations for Satellite Video Programming Providers;446
25.3.1.1;18.3.1.1 Public Interest Obligations;446
25.3.1.2;18.3.1.2 Statutory Copyright Licenses;446
25.3.2;18.3.2 General Obligations for Telecommunications Providers;447
25.3.2.1;18.3.2.1 Common Carrier Telecommunications Authority;447
25.3.2.2;18.3.2.2 Universal Service;449
25.4;18.4 Foreign Investment;450
25.5;18.5 Competition;452
25.5.1;18.5.1 FCC Policies for Encouraging Competition;452
25.5.2;18.5.2 The State of Competition for Satellite Services;453
26;19 Politics and Regulation of Earth Observation Services in the United States;457
26.1;19.1 Introduction;457
26.2;19.2 Harmonization;459
26.3;19.3 Data Policies;461
26.3.1;19.3.1 Data Access;461
26.3.2;19.3.2 Data Protection;463
26.3.3;19.3.3 Data Preservation;463
26.3.4;19.3.4 Data Standards;465
26.4;19.4 Public and Commercial Uses;466
26.5;19.5 National Security and Commercial Uses;466
26.6;19.6 Regulation and Licensing of Commercial Remote Sensing;469
26.7;19.7 Conclusions;471
27;20 Regulation of Global Navigation and Positioning Services in the United States;473
27.1;20.1 Introduction: The Global Positioning System;473
27.2;20.2 GNSS Availability;473
27.3;20.3 U.S. National GNSS Institutions;474
27.4;20.4 Liability Regime;476
27.5;20.5 Conclusion;479
28;21 State and Municipal Regulation of the Aerospace Industry in the United States;480
28.1;21.1 Introduction;480
28.2;21.2 Space Commissions;482
28.3;21.3 Space Commissions and Spaceports;484
28.4;21.4 Spaceport Regulation Independent of a Space Commission;487
28.5;21.5 Business Development Programs;490
28.5.1;21.5.1 Financial Assistance for a Specific Company;490
28.5.2;21.5.2 Financial Assistance for Aerospace Projects;490
28.5.3;21.5.3 Promotion of Space Business;492
28.5.4;21.5.4 Tax Incentives for Aerospace Activities;493
28.5.5;21.5.5 Regulation of Specific Aerospace Industry Segments;494
28.5.6;21.5.6 Miscellaneous Statutory References;495
29;Index;497