Karaca Biology of Earthworms

2011
ISBN: 978-3-642-14636-7
Verlag: Springer
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, Band 24, 316 Seiten

Reihe: Soil Biology

Earthworms, which belong to the order Oligochaeta, comprise roughly 3,000 species grouped into five families. Earthworms have been called 'ecosystem engineers'; much like human engineers, they change the structure of their environments. Earthworms are very versatile and are found in nearly all terrestrial ecosystems. They play an important role in forest and agricultural ecosystems. This Soil Biology volume describes the various facets of earthworms, such as their role in soil improvement, soil structure, and the biocontrol of soil-borne plant fungal diseases. Reviews discuss earthworms' innate immune system, molecular markers to address various issues of earthworm ecology, earthworm population dynamics, and the influences of organic farming systems and tillage. Further topics include the characteristics of vermicompost, relationships between soil earthworms and enzymes, the role of spermathecae, copulatory behavior, and adjustment of the donated sperm volume.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Karaca, Ayten

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Preface;6
2;Contents;10
3;Contributors;12
4;Chapter 1: Antimicrobial Vermipeptides: From Methods to Characteristics;16
4.1;1.1 Introduction;16
4.2;1.2 Protocol of Antibacterial Vermipeptide Preparation and Activity Assays;17
4.2.1;1.2.1 Animal and Bacterial Strains;17
4.2.2;1.2.2 Preparation of Crude Specimen;18
4.2.3;1.2.3 Purification of the Peptide;19
4.2.3.1;1.2.3.1 DE-52 Ion Exchange Chromatography;19
4.2.3.2;1.2.3.2 Gel Filtration;19
4.2.3.3;1.2.3.3 HPLC Purification of Peptide;19
4.2.4;1.2.4 Assessment of Peptide Characters;20
4.2.4.1;1.2.4.1 Molecular Weight Determination;20
4.2.4.2;1.2.4.2 Amino Acid Sequence Determination of the Isolated Peptide;20
4.2.4.3;1.2.4.3 Antibacterial Assays;20
4.2.4.4;1.2.4.4 Antitumor Activity Assays;20
4.2.4.5;1.2.4.5 Antiviral Activity Assays;21
4.3;1.3 Antibacterial Characteristics from Coelomic Fluid to Pure Peptide;21
4.3.1;1.3.1 Antibacterial Effects of Raw Coelomic Fluid of Earthworm;21
4.3.2;1.3.2 Antibacterial Effects of Earthworm Crude Antibacterial Peptides;22
4.3.3;1.3.3 Antibacterial Effects of Pure Antibacterial Peptides;22
4.3.4;1.3.4 Antimicrobial Chart of AVPF;23
4.3.5;1.3.5 Antitumor Activity of AVPF;23
4.3.6;1.3.6 Antiviral (PRV) Activity;25
4.4;1.4 Inducement of Peptides;25
4.4.1;1.4.1 Inducement Methods and Effects of Vermipeptide;25
4.4.1.1;1.4.1.1 Bacterial Treatment;25
4.4.1.2;1.4.1.2 Physical Treatment;26
4.4.1.3;1.4.1.3 Chemical Treatment;26
4.4.2;1.4.2 Characteristics of Induced Peptides;26
4.4.2.1;1.4.2.1 Antibacterial Vermipeptide Inducement;26
4.4.2.2;1.4.2.2 Spectrum of Fortypeptide;27
4.4.2.3;1.4.2.3 Evaluation of Different Inducements for Antimicrobial Peptides;27
4.4.2.4;1.4.2.4 Comparison of Antibacterial Components of Coelomic Fluid Extraction;28
4.5;1.5 Antibacterial Vermipeptide Family Found;29
4.6;1.6 Conclusion;31
4.7;References;31
5;Chapter 2: Optimizing Earthworm Sampling in Ecosystems;33
5.1;2.1 Introduction;33
5.2;2.2 How to Sample? Optimizing Earthworm Sampling Methods;34
5.2.1;2.2.1 Material and Methods;35
5.2.1.1;2.2.1.1 Preparation of Expellants;35
5.2.1.2;2.2.1.2 Earthworm Sampling;36
5.2.2;2.2.2 Salient Observations;37
5.2.2.1;2.2.2.1 Concentration Optimization;37
5.2.2.2;2.2.2.2 Efficiency Assessment;38
5.2.3;2.2.3 Interpretation;40
5.2.3.1;2.2.3.1 Concentration Optimization;40
5.2.3.2;2.2.3.2 Efficiency Assessment;41
5.3;2.3 Where to Sample? Optimizing Spatial Sampling Design;43
5.3.1;2.3.1 Spatial Autocorrelation and Sampling Design;43
5.3.2;2.3.2 Sample Unit Size and Shape;44
5.4;2.4 How Many Samples? Optimizing Sample Size;47
5.5;2.5 Conclusion;50
5.6;References;50
6;Chapter 3: Earthworms and Soil Structure;53
6.1;3.1 Introduction;53
6.2;3.2 Soil Aggregates and Structure;53
6.3;3.3 Earthworms and Soil Structure;55
6.3.1;3.3.1 Earthworm Species Effects on Burrowing and Casting;57
6.3.2;3.3.2 The Effect of Burrows on Soil Structure;58
6.3.3;3.3.3 The Effect of Casts on Soil Structure;59
6.4;3.4 Conclusion;61
6.5;References;61
7;Chapter 4: Comparative Anatomy of the Calciferous Gland of Lumbricid Earthworms;65
7.1;4.1 Introduction;65
7.2;4.2 Materials and Methods;67
7.3;4.3 Calciferous Gland Types Based on Anatomy;67
7.3.1;4.3.1 Well Developed Esophageal Pouches in Segment X and Lateral Enlargements in Segments XI and XII (Subtype I: Anterior and Posterior Lateral Enlargements of Similar Size);67
7.3.2;4.3.2 Well-Developed Esophageal Pouches in Segment X and Lateral Enlargements in Segments XI and XII (Subtype II: Glandular Portion in Segment XII Smaller in Size);70
7.3.3;4.3.3 Small Esophageal Pouches in Segment X and Lateral Enlargements (Subtype I: Glandular Portion in Segment XI Bigger in Size);71
7.3.4;4.3.4 Small Esophageal Pouches in X and Lateral Enlargements (Subtype II: Variable Number of Dilated Segments);72
7.3.5;4.3.5 Well-Developed Esophageal Pouches in X But No Lateral Enlargements;73
7.3.6;4.3.6 Esophageal Pouches in X Absent But Lateral Enlargements Present in Segments XI and XII (Subtype I: Segment X Not Enlarged);76
7.3.7;4.3.7 Esophageal Pouches in X Absent But Lateral Enlargements Present in Segments XI and XII (Subtype I: Segment X Dilated);77
7.4;4.4 Conclusions;79
7.5;References;79
8;Chapter 5: Reproduction of Earthworms: Sexual Selection and Parthenogenesis;82
8.1;5.1 Introduction;82
8.2;5.2 Sexual Selection in Cross-Fertilization Earthworms;84
8.2.1;5.2.1 Precopulatory Sexual Selection;84
8.2.2;5.2.2 Postcopulatory Sexual Selection;86
8.3;5.3 Parthenogenesis;89
8.3.1;5.3.1 Definition;89
8.3.2;5.3.2 Types of Parthenogenesis in Earthworms;89
8.3.3;5.3.3 Parthenogenesis and Polyploidy;92
8.3.4;5.3.4 Genetic and Ecological Consequences of Cloning;92
8.3.5;5.3.5 The Species Concept in Parthenogenetic Earthworms;93
8.3.6;5.3.6 The Origin of Parthenogenetic Forms;95
8.4;5.4 Conclusion;96
8.5;References;96
9;Chapter 6: The Earthworm Inoculation Unit Technique: Development and Use in Soil Improvement Over Two Decades;100
9.1;6.1 Introduction;100
9.2;6.2 Earthworms as Ecological Engineers;100
9.3;6.3 Established Inoculation Techniques;104
9.4;6.4 Development of the EIU Technique: From Tea Chests to Plastic Bags;105
9.5;6.5 First Trial: Calvert 1991;106
9.6;6.6 Down Sizing and Mixed Cultures;107
9.7;6.7 An Industrial Application: In Scotland and Poland;110
9.8;6.8 An Agricultural Trial: In the USA and in Finland;112
9.9;6.9 A French Connection;114
9.10;6.10 Bearing Fruit in New Zealand;114
9.11;6.11 Future Developments of the EIU Technique;114
9.12;References;116
10;Chapter 7: Controlled Cultivation of Endogeic and Anecic Earthworms;119
10.1;7.1 Introduction;119
10.2;7.2 Earthworm Ecological Groupings;119
10.3;7.3 Controlled Earthworm Cultivation;121
10.4;7.4 Why Cultivate Endogeic and Anecic Species?;125
10.4.1;7.4.1 Life History Studies, Species Interactions and Population Ecology;125
10.4.2;7.4.2 Ecosystem Improvement;127
10.4.3;7.4.3 Ecotoxicology;129
10.5;7.5 A Future for Cultivation of Soil Dwelling Earthworms;131
10.6;References;131
11;Chapter 8: The Meek Shall Inherit the Burrow: Feedback in Earthworm Soil Modification;134
11.1;8.1 Introduction;134
11.2;8.2 Earthworm Soil Modification: A Soil Improvement Adaptation?;136
11.2.1;8.2.1 Viewpoints of Earthworm Adaptations;136
11.2.2;8.2.2 Niche Construction and Ecological Inheritance Perspectives;139
11.3;8.3 A Case of Ecological Inheritance in the Dew Worm;141
11.3.1;8.3.1 Dew Worm Life Style;141
11.3.2;8.3.2 Indications of Burrow and Living Site Inheritance;142
11.3.3;8.3.3 Implications;145
11.4;8.4 Conclusion;147
11.5;References;149
12;Chapter 9: Earthworm Interactions with Soil Enzymes ;152
12.1;9.1 Introduction;152
12.2;9.2 Soil Earthworms;153
12.3;9.3 Soil Enzymes;154
12.4;9.4 Relationships Between Soil Earthworms and Enzymes;155
12.4.1;9.4.1 Interactions in Microscale;155
12.4.2;9.4.2 Interactions in Mesoscale;157
12.4.3;9.4.3 Interactions in Macroscale;159
12.4.4;9.4.4 Effects of Agricultural Activities on Earthworm-Enzyme Interactions;159
12.5;9.5 Conclusion;163
12.6;References;164
13;Chapter 10: The Impact of Cultivation Techniques on Earthworm Populations;170
13.1;10.1 Introduction;170
13.2;10.2 The Effects of Cultivation and Cropping on Earthworms;171
13.3;10.3 Earthworm Populations in Cultivated Soil;172
13.3.1;10.3.1 The Effect of Crop Rotations on Earthworm Populations;178
13.3.2;10.3.2 The Effect of Crop Residue Disposal on Earthworm Populations;179
13.4;10.4 Conclusion;180
13.5;References;181
14;Chapter 11: Assessing the Role of Earthworms in Biocontrol of Soil-Borne Plant Fungal Diseases;184
14.1;11.1 Introduction;184
14.2;11.2 Soil-Borne Plant Fungal Diseases;186
14.3;11.3 Biocontrol of Soil-Borne Fungal Diseases;187
14.4;11.4 Mechanisms of Soil-Borne Fungal Disease Suppression Due to Earthworm Activity;188
14.4.1;11.4.1 Changes in Microbial Community Dynamics;188
14.4.2;11.4.2 Enzymatic Activity;190
14.4.3;11.4.3 Production of Antifungal Compounds;191
14.4.3.1;11.4.3.1 Antibiotics;191
14.4.3.2;11.4.3.2 Phenolics;191
14.4.3.3;11.4.3.3 Antimicrobial Peptides;192
14.4.4;11.4.4 Physicochemical Properties of Soil;193
14.4.5;11.4.5 Induced Systemic Resistance in Plants;194
14.5;11.5 Conclusion;195
14.6;References;196
15;Chapter 12: The Use of Vermicompost Products to Control Plant Diseases and Pests;201
15.1;12.1 Introduction;201
15.2;12.2 The Use of Vermicompost Products for Plant Disease and Pest Control;202
15.2.1;12.2.1 Application of Solid Vermicomposts for Plant Disease Control;202
15.2.2;12.2.2 Application of Solid Vermicomposts for Plant Pest Control;206
15.2.2.1;12.2.2.1 Suppression of Plant Arthropod Pests;207
15.2.2.2;12.2.2.2 Suppression of Plant Parasitic Nematodes;209
15.3;12.3 Application of Vermicompost Extracts for Plant Disease and Pest Control;210
15.3.1;12.3.1 Application of Vermicompost Extracts for Plant Disease Control;210
15.3.2;12.3.2 Application of Vermicompost Extracts for Plant Pest Control;212
15.3.2.1;12.3.2.1 Suppression of Plant Arthropod Pests;213
15.3.2.2;12.3.2.2 Suppression of Plant Parasitic Nematodes;213
15.4;12.4 Mechanisms of Plant Disease Suppression by Vermicompost Products;214
15.5;12.5 Mechanisms of Plant Pest Control by Vermicompost Products;216
15.6;12.6 Important Factors of Disease Suppression Mechanisms by Vermicompost Products;217
15.7;12.7 Conclusions;219
15.8;References;220
16;Chapter 13: Vermicompost as a Biological Soil Amendment;224
16.1;13.1 Introduction;224
16.2;13.2 Characteristics of Vermicompost;225
16.3;13.3 Potential Application of Earthworms and Vermicompost in Plant Growth;226
16.4;13.4 Metals and Agrochemicals Accumulation from Soil by Earthworms;227
16.5;13.5 Plant Growth Trials Using Vermicomposts;227
16.6;13.6 Disease and Pest Suppression;228
16.7;13.7 Accumulation of Heavy Metals;229
16.8;13.8 Potential for Transmission of Pathogens;230
16.9;13.9 Effect of Worm Castings on Crop Yields;230
16.10;13.10 Detrimental Effects of Earthworms;231
16.11;13.11 Interpretation of Findings;232
16.12;13.12 Conclusion;232
16.13;References;234
17;Chapter 14: Earthworm Innate Immune System;238
17.1;14.1 Introduction;238
17.2;14.2 Innate Immune Recognition in Earthworms;239
17.3;14.3 Coelomocyte Proliferation After Depletion and Mitogen Stimulation;239
17.4;14.4 Earthworm Coelomocytes Are Positive for Different Mammalian Antigen-Specific Monoclonal Antibodies;241
17.4.1;14.4.1 Molecules with Cytokine-Like Activity;241
17.4.2;14.4.2 FACS Reveals Distinct Coelomocyte Subtypes Based on CD Marker Properties;241
17.5;14.5 Earthworm Leukocytes Deploy Lysosomal Enzymes That Respond to Bacterial Challenge;242
17.6;14.6 Specific Monoclonal Antibodies Identify Four Distinct Earthworm Coelomocyte Markers;244
17.6.1;14.6.1 Establishing a CD Marker Library;244
17.6.2;14.6.2 Characterization of Coelomocyte Differentiation Clusters;245
17.7;14.7 Signaling Mechanisms by Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinases in Invertebrate Immunocytes;246
17.7.1;14.7.1 Signaling a Common and Important Mechanism;246
17.7.2;14.7.2 The Essential Role of Phosphorylation to Activate MAPKs;248
17.8;14.8 Is MAPK Pathway Involved in Earthworm Immune Response?;248
17.9;14.9 Conclusions and Future Prospects;249
17.10;References;250
18;Chapter 15: Earthworms: A Potent Herbal Target for TCM (CAM) Research;255
18.1;15.1 Introduction;255
18.2;15.2 Peripheral Nerve Regeneration;256
18.2.1;15.2.1 MAPK Pathway: Stimulating Schwann Cells Migration;258
18.2.2;15.2.2 IGF-I Pathway: Stimulating Schwann Cells Proliferation;258
18.2.3;15.2.3 PACAP-Like Compound;259
18.2.4;15.2.4 G-90;259
18.2.5;15.2.5 Optimal Dosage of Earthworm Extract;259
18.3;15.3 Pharmacological and Clinical Application;260
18.3.1;15.3.1 Fibrinolytic Enzyme;260
18.3.2;15.3.2 G-90 Glycolipoprotein;263
18.3.3;15.3.3 Polyphenolic;263
18.4;15.4 The Impacts on Ecological Systems;264
18.5;15.5 The Challenges After Breaking the Balance of Ecological Systems;264
18.6;15.6 Conclusion and Perspectives;264
18.7;References;266
19;Chapter 16: Earthworms as Bioindicators of Soil Quality;269
19.1;16.1 Introduction: Soil Quality and Soil Health;269
19.2;16.2 Monitoring of Earthworm Communities;270
19.2.1;16.2.1 Monitoring Programs;270
19.2.2;16.2.2 Monitoring Results;273
19.2.3;16.2.3 Indicator Values of Earthworm Species Derived from Their Habitat Requirements;273
19.2.4;16.2.4 Constraints on the Interpretation of Earthworm Abundance as an Indicator of Soil Quality;273
19.3;16.3 Bioindication with Earthworms in Laboratory Assays;275
19.3.1;16.3.1 Avoidance Test;275
19.3.1.1;16.3.1.1 Two-dimensional terraria;276
19.4;16.4 Monitoring of Earthworms as Accumulators of Metals and Xenobiotica;277
19.4.1;16.4.1 Suitability of Earthworms as Accumulation Indicators;277
19.4.2;16.4.2 What Chemicals/Elements Have Been Found to Accumulate?;278
19.4.3;16.4.3 What Influences the Uptake of Chemicals by Earthworms?;279
19.4.4;16.4.4 What is the Use of Taking Earthworms as Accumulation Indicators of Environmental Chemicals?;281
19.5;16.5 Conclusion;281
19.6;References;282
20;Chapter 17: Application of Molecular Genetics to Earthworm Ecology: Current Research and Promising Future Directions;287
20.1;17.1 Introduction;287
20.2;17.2 Current Molecular Markers for Earthworm Genetics;288
20.2.1;17.2.1 mtDNA Markers;289
20.2.2;17.2.2 Microsatellites;292
20.2.3;17.2.3 AFLPs;294
20.3;17.3 Inferring Mating Strategies from Molecular Data in Amphimictic Earthworms;294
20.3.1;17.3.1 Selfing and Inbreeding;295
20.3.2;17.3.2 Multiple Mating;295
20.3.3;17.3.3 Post-Copulatory Sexual Selection;296
20.3.4;17.3.4 Genetic Compatibility and Mate Choice;297
20.4;17.4 Determining Patterns of Earthworm´s Dispersal Using Molecular Data;298
20.4.1;17.4.1 What Is a `Population´ for Earthworms?;299
20.4.2;17.4.2 Modes and Pathways of Earthworms Dispersal;299
20.4.3;17.4.3 Invasion by Earthworms;300
20.5;17.5 Conclusion;301
20.6;References;301
21;Chapter 18: Population Dynamics of Earthworms in Organic Farming Systems;306
21.1;18.1 Introduction;306
21.2;18.2 Earthworm Life Cycle;307
21.3;18.3 Long-Term Effects of Farming Systems on Population Dynamics;309
21.4;18.4 Methodological Limitations;310
21.5;18.5 Earthworm Population Dynamics at the WVU Organic Research Farm;311
21.5.1;18.5.1 Low-Input Treatment;312
21.5.2;18.5.2 High-Input Treatment;312
21.5.3;18.5.3 Observations;313
21.6;18.6 Conclusion;315
21.7;References;316
22;Index;318