Koch Optical Fiber Telecommunications IIIA

1. Auflage 2012
ISBN: 978-0-08-051316-4
Verlag: Elsevier Science & Techn.
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: 6 - ePub Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, Band Volume 3A, 608 Seiten

Reihe: Optics and Photonics

Updated to include the latest information on light wave technology, Optical Fiber Telecommunication III, Volumes A & B are invaluable for scientists, students, and engineers in the modern telecommunications industry. This two-volume set includes the most current research available in optical fiber telecommunications, light wave technology, and photonics/optoelectronics. The authors cover important background concepts such as SONET, coding device technology, andWOM components as well as projecting the trends in telecommunications for the 21st century. - One of the hottest subjects of today's technology - Includes the most up-to-date research available in optical fiber telecommunications - Projects the trends in telecommunications for the 21st century

Thomas L. Koch has received the Distinguished Lecturer Award and the William Streifer Award for Scientific Achievement from IEEE LEOS, holds 23 patents, has authored or co-authored more than 120 journal publications and 120 conference presentations. Dr. Koch is currently Vice President of Research and Development at SDL, Inc.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Koch, Thomas L.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Front Cover;1
2;Optical Fiber Telecommunications IIIA;4
3;Copyright Page;5
4;Table of Contents;8
5;Dedication
;6
6;Contributors;14
7;Chapter 1. Overview;18
7.1;History;18
7.2;The New Volume;19
7.3;Survey of Volumes IIIA and IIIB;20
7.4;References;29
8;Chapter 2. SONET and ATM;30
8.1;Background;30
8.2;Network Solutions;33
8.3;Synchronous Transmission Networking: SONET and the SDH;41
8.4;ATM Networking;49
8.5;SONET and ATM;57
8.6;References;58
9;Chapter 3. Coding and Error Correction in Optical Fiber Communications Systems;59
9.1;Introduction;59
9.2;Common Modulation Formats for Fiber Systems—Direct Detection and Coherent Systems;61
9.3;Fundamental Detection Performances and Deviations of Currently Available Systems;63
9.4;Potential Role of Forward Error-Correcting Codes in Fiber Systems and Its Beneficial Ripple Effects on System and Hardware Designs;67
9.5;Some Practical Codes;70
9.6;Applications of Coding to Future Lightwave Systems Such as WDM Systems and Optical Networks;75
9.7;Summary;78
9.8;References;78
10;Chapter 4. Advances in Fiber Design and Processing;80
10.1;Introduction;80
10.2;Erbium Doped Fiber Amplifier;81
10.3;High-Power Fiber Amplifier;88
10.4;Amplification at 1.3 µm;91
10.5;Dispersion Management;94
10.6;Specialty Connector Fibers;103
10.7;Conclusions;104
10.8;References;104
11;Chapter 5. Advances in Cable Design;109
11.1;Introduction;109
11.2;Performance, Reliability, and Standards;109
11.3;Outside Plant Cables;110
11.4;References;129
12;Chapter 6. Polarization Effects in Lightwave Systems;131
12.1;Introduction;131
12.2;Origin of Polarization Effects in Fiber;132
12.3;PMD in Systems;141
12.4;Measurement of PMD;160
12.5;Polarization Effects in Amplified Systems;168
12.6;References;172
13;Chapter 7. Dispersion Compensation for Optical Fiber Systems;179
13.1;Introduction;179
13.2;Lightwave Systems;180
13.3;Chromatic Dispersion;182
13.4;Dispersion Compensation;187
13.5;The Next Step;206
13.6;Summary;207
13.7;References;207
14;Chapter 8. Fiber Nonlinearities and Their Impact on Transmission Systems;213
14.1;Introduction;213
14.2;Stimulated Brillouin Scattering;216
14.3;Self-Phase Modulation;220
14.4;Cross-Phase Modulation;224
14.5;Four-Photon Mixing;229
14.6;Dispersion Management;242
14.7;Modulation Instability;248
14.8;Stimulated Raman Scattering;256
14.9;Scaling Nonlinearities;265
14.10;Formulas and Symbols;270
14.11;References;271
15;Chapter 9. Terrestrial Amplified Lightwave System Design;282
15.1;Introduction;282
15.2;Architecture and Building Blocks of Lightwave Networks;284
15.3;Optical Amplifier System Design;292
15.4;WDM Issues;300
15.5;Optical Fiber Constraints;306
15.6;Advanced Experiments and Field Trials;311
15.7;Future Trends;312
15.8;References;315
16;Chapter 10. Undersea Amplified Lightwave Systems Design;319
16.1;Introduction;319
16.2;Transmission Formats;321
16.3;Amplifier Chains;324
16.4;Dispersion and Nonlinearity Management;329
16.5;Measures of System Margin;331
16.6;Polarization Effects;337
16.7;Transmission Experiments;340
16.8;Transmission Systems;344
16.9;Summary;348
16.10;References;349
17;Chapter 11. Advances in High Bit-Rate Transmission Systems;353
17.1;Introduction;353
17.2;High-Speed Receiver Design;354
17.3;System Performance;364
17.4;High-Speed Electronics;379
17.5;References;387
18;Chapter 12. Solitons in High Bit-Rate, Long-Distance Transmission;390
18.1;Introduction;390
18.2;Pulse Propagation and Solitons in Optical Fibers: A Tutorial;392
18.3;Spontaneous Emission and Other Noise Effects;408
18.4;Frequency Guiding Filters;417
18.5;Wavelength-Division Multiplexing;437
18.6;Polarization Effects;460
18.7;References;474
19;Chapter 13. A Survey of Fiber Optics in Local Access Architectures;478
19.1;Introduction;478
19.2;Models of Current Access Architectures;480
19.3;Considerations for Network Providers;485
19.4;Examples of Current Access Architecture Models;491
19.5;Use of WDM in Passive Optical Networks for Access;505
19.6;Summary;524
19.7;References;525
20;Chapter 14. Lightwave Analog Video Transmission;540
20.1;Introduction;540
20.2;Analog Lightwave Systems;542
20.3;Analog Lightwave Technology;550
20.4;Summary;573
20.5;References;573
21;Chapter 15. Advanced Multiaccess Lightwave Networks;577
21.1;Introduction;577
21.2;Optical Transparency;578
21.3;WDM Point-to-Point Links;583
21.4;WDM Rings;584
21.5;WDM Local Access Networks;590
21.6;Wavelength-Routing Network Test Beds;593
21.7;Conclusions;606
21.8;References;608
22;Index;612

Leseproben

Chapter 2

SONET and ATM

Joseph E. Berthold    Bellcore, Red Bank, New Jersey

I Background

The mid-1980s to the mid-1990s has seen unprecedented change in communications technology. This chapter deals with two great technological advances. The first is the synchronous digital hierarchy (SDH), an International Telecommunications Union (ITU) standard, and the closely related synchronous optical network (SONET), an American National Standards Institute (ANSI) standard. Although there are differences between the two standards, for the purposes of this chapter the distinctions are unimportant. We use the terms SDH and SONET interchangeably. The second is the asynchronous transfer mode (ATM), which also is standardized in the ITU. These are the major standards that specify how to make use of optical communications technology, in that they specify how information is carried and manipulated through optical networks.

Optical communications technological advances were necessary, but not sufficient, for the creation of the SDH and ATM. They arose as a result of the fundamental changes that shook the communications industry beginning in the early 1980s. They were also stimulated by the needs of businesses that were beginning to understand and apply information technology, and to do so in the context of companies that spanned national boundaries.

This chapter gives an overview of SONET and ATM, mainly to show what else is needed beyond high-capacity optical links to create broadband networks. We first examine the forces in the marketplace that helped bring these concepts forth and the technological advances that made them possible. We then see some of the specific needs that the SDH and ATM sought to meet. We present a high-level view of some key concepts in networking to better understand where SONET and ATM fit in. We also see how these new standards have redefined what is needed to make major advances in networking technology. This should be instructive as researchers to seek to create the next breakthrough in optical communications networking.

A EMERGING COMPETITION IN TELECOMMUNICATIONS

The 1980s and 1990s have seen continued, fundamental change in the communications industries throughout the world. In the United States, the 1982 agreement to divest AT&T of its local-exchange business fractured the Bell System into eight independent companies. The seven local-exchange companies formed had nonoverlapping service areas. They were not allowed to transport signals across their entire service areas, but were restricted to stay within local access and transport areas (LATAs), of which several hundred were formed. The local-exchange companies were required to offer equal access to their LATA networks to interexchange telephone companies. AT&T was the largest interexchange company in the United States, but it had a growing number of competitors. What had been a nationwide network largely designed, built, and operated by a vertically integrated company, AT&T, was to be transformed into a nationwide network composed of many competing but interoperable networks. In this new environment, neither the network operators nor the network equipment suppliers were willing to have the new AT&T unilaterally make the technology decisions for the U.S. communications industry. The original SONET proposal was a direct outcome of the AT&T divestiture. There was a need to have a standardized, high-capacity interface, because so many interfaces were now required.

Although AT&T divestiture is often used as the prime example of the changing telecommunications business environment, many similar upheavals are in progress throughout the world. Nippon Telephone and Telegraph (NTT) is the process of privatization, and competition has begun in the Japanese market. In Europe, the nationally owned telecommunications organizations, the PTTs (posts, telephone, and telegraphs), are on a timetable for privatization and competition. England was among the first to introduce competition, and British Telecom now has competition for local telephone service by companies that also offer cable television services.

B TECHNOLOGICAL FORCES THAT INFLUENCED SONET AND ATM

Besides market demand, major advances were made in three key technologies: optical transmission technology, high-speed integrated circuit technology, and microprocessor technology. All these technologies had a major impact on the final outcome of the SDH and ATM standards.

The history of optical communications has been one of ever-increasing performance and increasing performance–cost ratio. The measure of transmission performance, the distance–bit-rate product, has seen exponential growth during several decades, and this growth is expected to continue well into the future. The challenge to networking systems architects, researchers, and developers is to provide the networking technology needed to exploit the capability of optical communications technology — that is, to create the correct signal structures and networking principles that will make the most of optical transmission performance now and in the future. Later in this chapter, we see that the SONET and ATM standards are distinguished from most previous data networking and telecommunications standards in that they are scalable in bit rate. They were designed with that relentless exponential in mind!

Another impact of the expected continuing growth of optical transmission performance is that bandwidth was no longer viewed as a scarce commodity, one to be carefully guarded. Efficiency was in some cases sacrificed to keep a simple, scalable multiplexing structure. Bandwidth was also dedicated to support operations functions.

Besides optical transmission technology, high-speed very large scale integration (VLSI) semiconductor technology has had a fundamental impact on the basic structure of SONET and ATM. VLSI makes highly complex signal structures possible and cost-effective, because whatever can be accomplished “on a chip” can be mass-produced at low cost. If high levels of integration are achievable, it is possible to make trade-offs in the execution of signal processing functions by choosing between high-speed serial and parallel logic, or by choosing the appropriate combination of the two. Functions that were associated previously with serial implementations, such as high-speed signal scrambling (used to make clock recovery in a digital receiver easier and more reliable), can also be done by using parallel algorithms. With the capability of doing all the complex logic required in parallel, the only required high-speed electronics function in an SDH multiplexer is the final bit-interleaving process that creates the high-speed transmission signal. The VLSI technology used for signal processing may even have adequate speed for all multiplexing functions, including serialization, for some signal rates. This comes about as a by-product of semiconductor technology evolution to increase circuit density. As circuit dimensions decrease, gate delays also decrease. For the highest line rates, the relatively few logic gates required for the sterilization function may be included on a separate chip, perhaps the same chip responsible for optical signal modulation.

Many assumptions went into the development of SONET and ATM that were not manifest directly in the digital signal formats but are nonetheless groundbreaking in the context of previous systems. One of the most important other technological impacts was that of the microprocessor. Microprocessor and semiconductor memory technologies are on the same relentless exponential performance-improvement curves as optical transmission technology is. Early transmission systems were relatively static. They were monitored and controlled, whenever control was possible, by centralized management systems. Systems in the future could be foreseen whereby a local processor could be as powerful as one of the processors in the older central monitoring systems. Although this technology will have a profound impact on the way in which management processes are accomplished in the future, and in the architecture of network management systems, it did also have an impact on the signal format for SONET, through the addition of an embedded data communications channel in the signal to allow remote management and the download of software into network elements. Distributing intelligence and control also raised new security and network reliability issues.

II Network Solutions

A APPLICATION NEEDS

Before we discuss the details of the SDH and ATM, it is instructive to consider some examples of applications that should be supported by wide-area networks. The ones chosen here are in use in private networks, predominantly in local area networks (LANs). The choices of the following four applications, listed in Table 2.1, were made to illustrate their differences and to show that a network optimized for specific services is unlikely to be flexible enough to meet the needs of as-yet undiscovered applications.

Table 2.1

Characteristics of Applications and the Requirements They Place on Networks

Distributed computing

Variable-length packets

“As low as possible”

Retransmit

Yes

High-resolution image delivery

Large data blocks

Moderate (~ 1 s)

Retransmit

No

Audio and video database access

Bursts...