Kozai / Fujiwara / Runkle LED Lighting for Urban Agriculture

1. Auflage 2016
ISBN: 978-981-10-1848-0
Verlag: Springer Nature Singapore
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 435 Seiten

This book focuses on light-emitting diode (LED) lighting, mainly for the commercial production of horticultural crops in plant factories and greenhouses with controlled environments, giving special attention to: 1) plant growth and development as affected by the light environment; and 2) business and technological opportunities and challenges with regard to LEDs. The book contains more than 30 chapters grouped into seven parts: 1) overview of controlled-environment agriculture and its significance; 2) the effects of ambient light on plant growth and development; 3) optical and physiological characteristics of plant leaves and canopies; 4) greenhouse crop production with supplemental LED lighting; 5) effects of light quality on plant physiology and morphology; 6) current status of commercial plant factories under LED lighting; and 7) basics of LEDs and LED lighting for plant cultivation. LED lighting for urban agriculture in the forthcoming decades will not be just an advanced form of current urban agriculture. It will be largely based on two fields: One is a new paradigm and rapidly advancing concepts, global technologies for LEDs, information and communication technology, renewable energy, and related expertise and their methodologies; the other is basic science and technology that should not change for the next several decades. Consideration should be given now to future urban agriculture based on those two fields. The tremendous potentials of LED lighting for urban agriculture are stimulating many people in various fields including researchers, businesspeople, policy makers, educators, students, community developers, architects, designers, and entrepreneurs. Readers of this book will understand the principle, concept, design, operation, social roles, pros and cons, costs and benefits of LED lighting for urban agriculture, and its possibilities and challenges for solving local as well as global agricultural, environmental, and social issues.

Toyoki Kozai, Ph.D., Professor Emeritus, President of Japan Plant Factory Association (NPO), 6-2-1 Kashiwano-ha, Kashiwa, Chiba 277- 0882, Japan
Kazuhiro Fujiwara, Ph.D., Professor, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo, 1-1-1 Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan
Erik S. Runkle, Ph.D., Professor, Department of Horticulture, Michigan State University, A240-C Plant & Soil Sciences Building, 1066 Bogue Street, East Lansing, MI 48824-1325, USA

Autoren/Hrsg.

Kozai, Toyoki

Fujiwara, Kazuhiro

Runkle, Erik S.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Acknowledgments;5
2;Contents;6
3;Part I: Perspective and Significance of LED Lighting for Urban Agriculture;10
3.1;Chapter 1: Why LED Lighting for Urban Agriculture?;11
3.1.1;1.1 Introduction;11
3.1.1.1;1.1.1 Benefits of Urban Agriculture;12
3.1.1.2;1.1.2 Benefits of Using Light-Emitting Diodes;12
3.1.2;1.2 Scope of this Publication;13
3.1.3;1.3 Technological Background to the Urban Agriculture of the Future;15
3.1.3.1;1.3.1 Local and Global Technology;15
3.1.3.2;1.3.2 Introducing Global Technology Locally;16
3.1.3.3;1.3.3 Innovative Global Technologies Influencing Next-Generation Urban Agriculture;17
3.1.3.3.1;1.3.3.1 Reductions in the Cost of Information and Bioinformatics;17
3.1.3.3.2;1.3.3.2 Levelized Cost of Electricity Generated from Renewable Energy Sources;18
3.1.3.3.3;1.3.3.3 3D Printing;19
3.1.4;1.4 Next-Generation Urban Agriculture;20
3.1.5;1.5 Closed Plant Production System (CPPS) (Kozai 2013; Kozai et al. 2015);20
3.1.5.1;1.5.1 Concept of CPPS;21
3.1.5.2;1.5.2 Estimating Rate Variable Values in the CPPS;22
3.1.5.3;1.5.3 Resource Use Efficiency (RUE) and Cost Performance (CP);23
3.1.5.4;1.5.4 Rate Variable Control;23
3.1.5.5;1.5.5 Current Advantages of PFAL;24
3.1.5.6;1.5.6 Current Disadvantages and Challenges of PFAL;25
3.1.6;References;26
3.2;Chapter 2: Integrated Urban Controlled Environment Agriculture Systems;27
3.2.1;2.1 Introduction;28
3.2.2;2.2 Recent Evolution of CEA;29
3.2.2.1;2.2.1 Protected Cultivation;29
3.2.2.2;2.2.2 Greenhouses;29
3.2.2.3;2.2.3 Controlled Environment Plant Production Systems (CEPPS);30
3.2.2.4;2.2.4 Phytomation;31
3.2.2.5;2.2.5 Plant Factories with Artificial Light;31
3.2.3;2.3 CEA´s Role and Participants Within Urban Food and Agriculture Systems;32
3.2.4;2.4 CEA´s Functional Components and Subsystems;33
3.2.4.1;2.4.1 CEA as Integrated Systems: An ACESys Model;34
3.2.5;2.5 Intelligence-Empowered CEA;36
3.2.6;2.6 CEA Systems Informatics and Analytics;38
3.2.6.1;2.6.1 ConSEnT for CEA Decision Support;39
3.2.6.2;2.6.2 Decision Support and Analytics;40
3.2.7;2.7 Current and Future CEA Challenges and Opportunities;41
3.2.7.1;2.7.1 Challenges;42
3.2.7.2;2.7.2 Opportunities;42
3.2.8;2.8 Concluding Remarks;43
3.2.9;References;43
3.3;Chapter 3: Open-Source Agriculture Initiative-Food for the Future?;45
3.3.1;3.1 Food Computing;46
3.3.2;3.2 Open Platforms and Open Data;50
3.3.3;3.3 Integrating Artificial Intelligence Experimentation;50
3.3.4;3.4 Building the IoF and Enabling Communities;52
3.3.5;3.5 A Platform for Expression;53
3.3.6;References;54
4;Part II: Plant Growth and Development as Affected by Light;55
4.1;Chapter 4: Some Aspects of the Light Environment;56
4.1.1;4.1 Light as an Energy and Signal Source;56
4.1.2;4.2 Components of the Light Environment;57
4.1.2.1;4.2.1 Spectral Distribution of Light Within the Plant Canopy;57
4.1.3;4.3 Light Environment in PFALs;58
4.1.3.1;4.3.1 Characteristics of LED Arrays as Light Source;58
4.1.3.2;4.3.2 Spatial Distribution of PPFD in Empty Cultivation Spaces in PFALs;59
4.1.3.3;4.3.3 Light Environment as Affected by Plant Canopies in Cultivation Spaces;59
4.1.4;4.4 Supplemental Upward Lighting;60
4.1.5;4.5 Supplemental Lighting in Greenhouses;61
4.1.5.1;4.5.1 Purpose of Supplemental Lighting in Greenhouses;61
4.1.5.2;4.5.2 Environmental Control for Efficient Supplemental Lighting;61
4.1.6;References;62
4.2;Chapter 5: Light Acts as a Signal for Regulation of Growth and Development;63
4.2.1;5.1 Photoreceptors and Their Function;63
4.2.1.1;5.1.1 Phytochromes (Phy);65
4.2.1.2;5.1.2 Cryptochromes (Crys);67
4.2.1.3;5.1.3 Phototropins (Phots);67
4.2.1.4;5.1.4 Zeitlupe Family Proteins (ZTL/FKF1/LKP2);68
4.2.1.5;5.1.5 UV-B Receptor (UVR8);68
4.2.2;5.2 Light-Dependent Seed Germination;68
4.2.3;5.3 De-etiolation;70
4.2.4;5.4 Phototropism;71
4.2.5;5.5 Shade-Avoidance Response;72
4.2.6;5.6 Circadian Rhythms and Biological Responses;73
4.2.7;5.7 The Gating Effects of Circadian Clocks;75
4.2.8;References;76
4.3;Chapter 6: Factors Affecting Flowering Seasonality;80
4.3.1;6.1 Photoperiodic Flowering;80
4.3.2;6.2 Florigen and Anti-florigen;81
4.3.3;6.3 Flowering and Seasonal Time Measurement;83
4.3.4;6.4 Flowering Time Regulation in Chrysanthemum;85
4.3.5;6.5 Molecular Mechanisms of Photoperiodic Flowering in Rice;87
4.3.6;6.6 Flowering Time Regulation in Other Plant Species;87
4.3.7;6.7 Vernalization;89
4.3.8;References;90
4.4;Chapter 7: Light Environment in the Cultivation Space of Plant Factory with LEDs;95
4.4.1;7.1 Introduction;95
4.4.2;7.2 Materials and Methods;96
4.4.2.1;7.2.1 Software;96
4.4.2.2;7.2.2 Variables and Their Values Assumed as Unique Input Data;96
4.4.2.3;7.2.3 Factors Examined to Show Their Effects on PPFD Distribution;96
4.4.2.3.1;7.2.3.1 Variables Characterizing Horizontal and Vertical PPFD Distributions;100
4.4.3;7.3 Results and Discussion;100
4.4.3.1;7.3.1 Summary of C-PPFD and %L;100
4.4.3.2;7.3.2 Summary of S-PPFD;100
4.4.3.3;7.3.3 Case 1: Reflectance (r) of Culture Panel Surface;102
4.4.3.4;7.3.4 Case 2: Width (W) of Vertical Side Reflectors;102
4.4.3.5;7.3.5 Case 3: Uneven Distance Between LED Tubes;105
4.4.3.6;7.3.6 Case 4: Perpendicular Layout (Fig.7.4a);105
4.4.3.7;7.3.7 Case 5: Narrow Angular Light Distribution;106
4.4.3.8;7.3.8 Case 6: Height of Plant Canopy (h);107
4.4.4;7.4 Some Consideration on Optimal Light Environment;108
4.4.4.1;7.4.1 Optimal PPFD?;108
4.4.4.1.1;7.4.1.1 Optimal Lighting Direction;110
4.4.4.2;7.4.2 Optimal Photo- and Dark Periods?;110
4.4.4.3;7.4.3 Optimal Light Quality?;111
4.4.4.3.1;7.4.3.1 Light Source for Far-Red and Ultraviolet (UV);111
4.4.4.4;7.4.4 Interactions Among Environmental Factors;111
4.4.5;7.5 Future Work;112
4.4.5.1;7.5.1 Challenges;112
4.4.6;References;113
5;Part III: Optical and Physiological Characteristics of a Plant Leaf and a Canopy;114
5.1;Chapter 8: Optical and Physiological Properties of a Leaf;115
5.1.1;8.1 Introduction;115
5.1.2;8.2 Optical Properties of a Leaf;116
5.1.2.1;8.2.1 Leaf Orientation and the Vertical Light Profiles Within a Leaf;117
5.1.2.2;8.2.2 Pigments and Spectral Absorption of a Leaf;118
5.1.3;8.3 Physiological Properties of a Leaf;120
5.1.3.1;8.3.1 Photosynthesis;120
5.1.3.2;8.3.2 Transpiration;123
5.1.3.3;8.3.3 Translocation;124
5.1.4;References;125
5.2;Chapter 9: Optical and Physiological Properties of a Plant Canopy;126
5.2.1;9.1 Introduction;126
5.2.2;9.2 Light Attenuation Through Plant Canopy;127
5.2.3;9.3 Extinction Coefficients in Plant Canopy;128
5.2.4;9.4 Consideration of Spectral Properties Within the Canopy;131
5.2.5;9.5 Canopy Photosynthesis;132
5.2.5.1;9.5.1 Characteristics of Canopy Photosynthesis;132
5.2.5.2;9.5.2 Simple Method for Estimating Canopy Photosynthetic Rate;133
5.2.5.3;9.5.3 Growth Analysis;135
5.2.6;References;136
5.3;Chapter 10: Evaluation of Spatial Light Environment and Plant Canopy Structure;137
5.3.1;10.1 Introduction;137
5.3.2;10.2 Measurement of PPFD Distribution in a Plant Canopy;138
5.3.3;10.3 Evaluation of Plant Canopy Structure;139
5.3.4;10.4 LAI Estimation;140
5.3.4.1;10.4.1 Direct and Indirect Estimation;140
5.3.4.2;10.4.2 Methods Using Gap Fraction;141
5.3.4.3;10.4.3 The Use of Spectral Reflectance;142
5.3.4.4;10.4.4 Image Analysis;144
5.3.5;10.5 Estimation of PPFD Distribution on Plant Canopy Surface;144
5.3.5.1;10.5.1 Importance of Understanding Light Distribution on the Canopy Surface;144
5.3.5.2;10.5.2 Reflection Image-Based Estimation Method of PPFD on Canopy Surface;145
5.3.5.3;10.5.3 Applications;147
5.3.6;References;149
5.4;Chapter 11: Lighting Efficiency in Plant Production Under Artificial Lighting and Plant Growth Modeling for Evaluating the Lighting Efficiency;150
5.4.1;11.1 Introduction;150
5.4.2;11.2 Light Energy Received by Leaves;151
5.4.2.1;11.2.1 Light Use Efficiency;151
5.4.2.2;11.2.2 Ratio of Light Energy Received by the Plants;152
5.4.2.3;11.2.3 Improving Electrical Energy Use Efficiency;153
5.4.3;11.3 Lighting Efficiency Based on PPFD Distribution on a Canopy Surface;154
5.4.4;11.4 Plant Growth Modeling for Evaluating Lighting Efficiency;156
5.4.4.1;11.4.1 Simple Growth Model;156
5.4.4.2;11.4.2 2D and 3D Modeling for Vegetative Growth;157
5.4.5;References;159
5.5;Chapter 12: Effects of Physical Environment on Photosynthesis, Respiration, and Transpiration;161
5.5.1;12.1 Introduction;162
5.5.2;12.2 Transpiration;162
5.5.2.1;12.2.1 Water Vapor Diffusion Model;162
5.5.2.2;12.2.2 Effects of Humidity;164
5.5.2.3;12.2.3 Effects of Rhizosphere Environment;165
5.5.2.4;12.2.4 Effects of Light Intensity and Spectrum;165
5.5.2.5;12.2.5 Effects of CO2 Concentration;165
5.5.2.6;12.2.6 Effects of Temperature;166
5.5.3;12.3 Respiration;166
5.5.3.1;12.3.1 Dark Respiration and Photorespiration;166
5.5.3.2;12.3.2 Effects of Temperature;167
5.5.3.3;12.3.3 Effects of O2 and CO2 Concentrations;168
5.5.3.4;12.3.4 Effects of Light Intensity;168
5.5.4;12.4 Photosynthesis;169
5.5.4.1;12.4.1 CO2 Diffusion Model;169
5.5.4.2;12.4.2 Effects of CO2 Concentration;170
5.5.4.3;12.4.3 Effects of Light Intensity;171
5.5.4.4;12.4.4 Effects of Temperature;172
5.5.5;References;172
5.6;Chapter 13: Air Current Around Single Leaves and Plant Canopies and Its Effect on Transpiration, Photosynthesis, and Plant Organ Temperatures;174
5.6.1;13.1 Introduction;175
5.6.2;13.2 Effects of Air Current Speed on Boundary Layer Resistance, Photosynthesis, and Transpiration of Single Leaves;175
5.6.3;13.3 Effect of Air Current Speed on the Surface Temperatures of Plant Organs;180
5.6.4;13.4 Effects of Light Intensity and Air Current Speed on the Air Temperature, Water Vapor Pressure, and CO2 Concentration Insi...;181
5.6.5;13.5 Concluding Remarks;182
5.6.6;References;183
6;Part IV: Greenhouse Crop Production with Supplemental LED Lighting;185
6.1;Chapter 14: Control of Flowering Using Night-Interruption and Day-Extension LED Lighting;186
6.1.1;14.1 Introduction;187
6.1.2;14.2 Conventional Lamps;187
6.1.3;14.3 Light-Emitting Diodes;188
6.1.3.1;14.3.1 Critical Wavebands for Regulation of Flowering of Long-Day Plants;188
6.1.3.2;14.3.2 Critical Wavebands for Regulation of Flowering of Short-Day Plants;191
6.1.3.3;14.3.3 Comparisons Between Conventional Lamps and Light-Emitting Diodes;192
6.1.4;14.4 Concluding Summary;194
6.1.5;References;195
6.2;Chapter 15: Control of Morphology by Manipulating Light Quality and Daily Light Integral Using LEDs;197
6.2.1;15.1 Introduction;197
6.2.2;15.2 Effects of DLI on Plant Morphology;198
6.2.3;15.3 Effects of Light Quality on Plant Morphology;198
6.2.3.1;15.3.1 Red Light;199
6.2.3.2;15.3.2 Blue Light;199
6.2.3.3;15.3.3 Far-Red Light;200
6.2.4;15.4 Supplemental Lighting;200
6.2.4.1;15.4.1 LED Supplemental Lighting for Ornamental Seedling and Cutting Propagation;201
6.2.4.2;15.4.2 LED Supplemental Light for Ornamental Crop Finishing;206
6.2.4.3;15.4.3 LED Supplemental Light for Vegetable Production;207
6.2.5;15.5 Concluding Summary;208
6.2.6;References;209
6.3;Chapter 16: Supplemental Lighting for Greenhouse-Grown Fruiting Vegetables;212
6.3.1;16.1 Introduction;212
6.3.2;16.2 Types of SL and Light Sources for Fruiting Vegetables;213
6.3.2.1;16.2.1 Overhead/Top SL;213
6.3.2.1.1;16.2.1.1 HID Lamps for Overhead SL;213
6.3.2.1.2;16.2.1.2 LEDs for Overhead SL;214
6.3.2.1.3;16.2.1.3 Application of Overhead SL;214
6.3.2.2;16.2.2 Combination of Overhead and Intracanopy SL;215
6.3.2.2.1;16.2.2.1 Light Distribution in Tall Greenhouse Crops;215
6.3.2.2.2;16.2.2.2 Intracanopy Lighting;215
6.3.2.2.3;16.2.2.3 Application of Overhead and Intracanopy SL;216
6.3.2.3;16.2.3 Intracanopy SL Alone;217
6.3.2.3.1;16.2.3.1 Conditions for the Use of Intracanopy Lighting Alone;217
6.3.2.3.2;16.2.3.2 Application of Intracanopy SL Alone;218
6.3.3;16.3 Light Intensities, Photoperiods, and DLIs of SL;219
6.3.4;16.4 LED SL for Improving Fruit Quality;220
6.3.5;16.5 Other Aspects of Using SL;221
6.3.6;16.6 Economic Considerations for Greenhouse SL;222
6.3.7;References;224
6.4;Chapter 17: Recent Developments in Plant Lighting;226
6.4.1;17.1 Introduction;226
6.4.2;17.2 The 8th International Symposium on Light in Horticulture;227
6.4.3;17.3 New Horticultural Lighting Book;227
6.4.4;17.4 Standards for Plant Lighting Applications;227
6.4.5;17.5 Efficiency and Efficacy;228
6.4.6;References;229
7;Part V: Light-Quality Effects on Plant Physiology and Morphology;230
7.1;Chapter 18: Effect of Light Quality on Secondary Metabolite Production in Leafy Greens and Seedlings;231
7.1.1;18.1 Introduction;231
7.1.2;18.2 Antioxidant Ability;232
7.1.3;18.3 Vitamins;240
7.1.4;18.4 Eating Quality Improvement;242
7.1.5;18.5 Color Development;247
7.1.6;18.6 Concluding Summary;249
7.1.7;References;252
7.2;Chapter 19: Induction of Plant Disease Resistance and Other Physiological Responses by Green Light Illumination;253
7.2.1;19.1 Introduction;253
7.2.2;19.2 Induction of Disease Resistance by Green Light Illumination;254
7.2.2.1;19.2.1 Effects of Light Quality on Gene Expression Related to Disease Resistance;254
7.2.2.2;19.2.2 Effects of Green Light on Strawberry Anthracnose;256
7.2.2.3;19.2.3 Effects of Green Light on Corynespora Leaf Spot Disease;258
7.2.3;19.3 Various Effects of Green Light;259
7.2.3.1;19.3.1 Spider Mite Control;260
7.2.3.2;19.3.2 Growth Promotion;260
7.2.3.3;19.3.3 Increase in Functional Substances and Sugar Content;262
7.2.3.4;19.3.4 Dormancy Suppression, Flower Bud Differentiation, and Bolting;264
7.2.4;19.4 Conclusion;264
7.2.5;References;265
7.3;Chapter 20: Light Quality Effects on Intumescence (Oedema) on Plant Leaves;266
7.3.1;20.1 Introduction;266
7.3.2;20.2 Description and Impact of Intumescences;268
7.3.2.1;20.2.1 Anatomy and Morphology;268
7.3.2.2;20.2.2 Genetics;268
7.3.2.3;20.2.3 Photosynthesis and Yield;268
7.3.2.4;20.2.4 Aesthetic and Economic Impact;270
7.3.3;20.3 Light Quality Affects Intumescence;270
7.3.3.1;20.3.1 Ultraviolet Light;271
7.3.3.1.1;20.3.1.1 Prevention of Intumescence;273
7.3.3.1.2;20.3.1.2 Molecular Mechanisms;273
7.3.3.2;20.3.2 Blue and Green Light;274
7.3.3.3;20.3.3 Red and Far Red;275
7.3.3.4;20.3.4 Concluding Summary;276
7.3.4;References;276
8;Part VI: Current Status of Commercial Plant Factories with LED Lighting;278
8.1;Chapter 21: Business Models for Plant Factory With Artificial Lighting (PFAL) in Taiwan;279
8.1.1;21.1 Introduction;279
8.1.2;21.2 Business Models;280
8.1.3;21.3 Conclusion;282
8.1.4;References;283
8.2;Chapter 22: Current Status of Commercial Plant Factories with LED Lighting Market in Asia, Europe, and Other Regions;284
8.2.1;22.1 Introduction;284
8.2.2;22.2 Current Market Status in Japan;285
8.2.2.1;22.2.1 Background on the Japanese PFAL Industry;285
8.2.2.2;22.2.2 Current Trends of Japanese PFAL Industry;285
8.2.2.3;22.2.3 Current Japanese LED PFAL and LED Lighting Market Trends;287
8.2.3;22.3 Current Market Status in Europe, Asia, and Other Regions;289
8.2.3.1;22.3.1 Current Market Status in Europe;289
8.2.3.2;22.3.2 Current Market Status in Asia and Other Regions;294
8.2.4;22.4 Conclusion: Predictions for PFALs with LED Lightings;297
8.2.5;References;297
8.3;Chapter 23: Current Status of Commercial Vertical Farms with LED Lighting Market in North America;298
8.3.1;23.1 Introduction;298
8.3.2;23.2 Background on the North American Vertical Farming Industry;299
8.3.3;23.3 Current Vertical Farming Lighting Market Trends;301
8.3.4;23.4 Current Status of the LED Lights Designed for Vertical Farms;303
8.3.5;23.5 Conclusion: Predictions for Vertical Farm Lighting;304
8.3.6;Reference;304
8.4;Chapter 24: Global LED Lighting Players, Economic Analysis, and Market Creation for PFALs;305
8.4.1;24.1 Introduction;305
8.4.2;24.2 Global Plant Factory LED Lighting Players;306
8.4.2.1;24.2.1 Global Trends of Plant Factory LED Lighting Players;306
8.4.2.1.1;24.2.1.1 Lighting Companies Designing LED Grow Light for PFALs or Vertical Farms;306
8.4.2.2;24.2.2 Plant Factory LED Lighting Players Headquartered in Asia;307
8.4.2.3;24.2.3 Plant Factory LED Lighting Players Headquartered in Europe;317
8.4.2.4;24.2.4 Plant Factory LED Lighting Players Headquartered in North America;325
8.4.3;24.3 Economic Analysis;329
8.4.4;24.4 Market Creation for PFALs;331
8.4.5;Reference;333
8.5;Chapter 25: Consumer Perception and Understanding of Vegetables Produced at Plant Factories with Artificial Lighting;334
8.5.1;25.1 Introduction;335
8.5.2;25.2 Consumer Perception of PFAL-Produced Vegetables in Japan;336
8.5.2.1;25.2.1 Consumer Impressions of PFALs and Their Products;336
8.5.2.2;25.2.2 Impact of Knowledge on Consumer Impressions;338
8.5.3;25.3 Consumer Understanding of PFAL-Produced Vegetables in Japan;340
8.5.3.1;25.3.1 Awareness and Recognition Process;340
8.5.3.2;25.3.2 Level of Understanding;341
8.5.3.3;25.3.3 Factors Affecting the Degree of Anxiety;342
8.5.4;25.4 Case Study in Hong Kong;343
8.5.4.1;25.4.1 Awareness, Understanding, and Impression in Hong Kong;343
8.5.4.2;25.4.2 Relationship Between Knowledge and Confidence;345
8.5.5;25.5 Future Prospects of the Plant Factory Business;346
8.5.5.1;25.5.1 Potential Demand for PFAL-Produced Vegetables;347
8.5.5.2;25.5.2 Necessity of Marketing Activities and Education;348
8.5.6;25.6 Conclusion;348
8.5.7;References;349
9;Part VII: Basics of LEDs and LED Lighting Systems for Plant Cultivation;351
9.1;Chapter 26: Radiometric, Photometric and Photonmetric Quantities and Their Units;352
9.1.1;26.1 Introduction;352
9.1.2;26.2 Importance of Photonmetric Quantities for Plant Cultivation;353
9.1.3;26.3 Fundamental Quantities in Radiometry, Photometry and Photonmetry and Their SI Units;353
9.1.3.1;26.3.1 Radiant Intensity [W sr-1];353
9.1.3.2;26.3.2 Radiant Flux (Radiant Power) [W] (= [J s-1]);354
9.1.3.3;26.3.3 Radiant Energy [J];354
9.1.3.4;26.3.4 Irradiance [W m-2];354
9.1.3.5;26.3.5 Luminous Intensity [cd];354
9.1.3.6;26.3.6 Luminous Flux [lm];355
9.1.3.7;26.3.7 Quantity of Light [lm s];355
9.1.3.8;26.3.8 Illuminance [lx];355
9.1.3.9;26.3.9 Photon Intensity [mol s-1 sr-1];355
9.1.3.10;26.3.10 Photon Flux [mol s-1];355
9.1.3.11;26.3.11 Photon Number (Number of Photons) [mol];356
9.1.3.12;26.3.12 Photon Flux Density (Photon Irradiance) [mol m-2 s-1];356
9.1.4;26.4 Spectral Distribution of Radiometric, Photometric and Photonmetric Quantities;356
9.1.5;26.5 Quantitative Relations of Radiometric, Photometric and Photonmetric Quantities;357
9.1.6;26.6 Photosynthetically Active Radiation;360
9.1.7;References;361
9.2;Chapter 27: Basics of LEDs for Plant Cultivation;362
9.2.1;27.1 Introduction;362
9.2.2;27.2 Definitions of LED Product Terms;363
9.2.2.1;27.2.1 LED;363
9.2.2.2;27.2.2 LED Package;363
9.2.2.3;27.2.3 LED Module;364
9.2.2.4;27.2.4 LED Control Gear;364
9.2.2.5;27.2.5 LED L364
9.2.2.6;27.2.6 LED Light Source;364
9.2.2.7;27.2.7 LED Luminaire;365
9.2.2.8;27.2.8 LED Lighting System;365
9.2.3;27.3 Light-Emitting Principle of an LED;365
9.2.4;27.4 LED Package Configuration Types;365
9.2.5;27.5 Basic Terms for Expressing Optical, Electrical, and Radiational Characteristics of an LED;366
9.2.5.1;27.5.1 Forward Current [A];366
9.2.5.2;27.5.2 Half Width (at Half Maximum) [nm];366
9.2.5.3;27.5.3 Luminous Intensity [cd];368
9.2.5.4;27.5.4 Radiant Flux [W] (= [J s-1]);369
9.2.5.5;27.5.5 Peak Wavelength [nm];369
9.2.5.6;27.5.6 Viewing Half Angle [];369
9.2.6;27.6 Optical, Electrical, and Radiational Characteristics in LED Operation;369
9.2.7;27.7 Lighting Methods;370
9.2.8;27.8 Radiant Flux Control Methods;370
9.2.9;27.9 Special Requirements for LED Lamps to Cultivate Plants;372
9.2.10;27.10 Advantages and Disadvantages of the Use of LED Lamps in Plant Cultivation;373
9.2.10.1;27.10.1 Advantages of the Use of LED Lamps;373
9.2.10.2;27.10.2 Disadvantages of the Use of LED Lamps;375
9.2.11;27.11 Luminous Efficacy and Energy-Photon Conversion Efficacy for Plant Cultivation;377
9.2.11.1;27.11.1 Luminous Efficacy;377
9.2.11.2;27.11.2 Energy-Photon Conversion Efficacy for Plant Cultivation;377
9.2.12;References;378
9.3;Chapter 28: Measurement of Photonmetric and Radiometric Characteristics of LEDs for Plant Cultivation;379
9.3.1;28.1 Plant Light Environment;379
9.3.1.1;28.1.1 Spectral Distribution Curve;379
9.3.1.2;28.1.2 Photosynthetic Photon Flux Density (PPFD);380
9.3.1.3;28.1.3 Ratio of the Photon Fluxes of a Specific Wavelength Range;382
9.3.1.4;28.1.4 Creation of a Summary Table of Characteristics of Light Quality Environment;382
9.3.2;28.2 Characteristics of LED Lighting System;382
9.3.2.1;28.2.1 Spectral Distribution (Spectral Radiant/Luminous Flux Distribution);383
9.3.2.2;28.2.2 Angular Distribution of Luminous Intensity (Luminous Intensity Distribution);383
9.3.2.3;28.2.3 Photosynthetically Active Radiant Energy Efficiency (J J-1);384
9.3.2.4;28.2.4 Photosynthetic Photon Number Efficacy (mumol J-1);384
9.3.2.5;28.2.5 Creation of a Summary Table of Characteristics of LED Lighting System;385
9.3.3;References;386
9.4;Chapter 29: Configuration, Function, and Operation of LED Lighting Systems;387
9.4.1;29.1 Introduction;387
9.4.2;29.2 Semiconductor p-n Junction and Light Emission;389
9.4.3;29.3 Regulation of Emission;390
9.4.3.1;29.3.1 Basic LED Drive Circuits;391
9.4.3.2;29.3.2 LED Lighting Mode for Plant Cultivations;392
9.4.4;29.4 Heat Dissipation;393
9.4.5;29.5 Distribution of Photon Flux Densities on an Irradiated Surface;395
9.4.6;References;397
9.5;Chapter 30: Energy Balance and Energy Conversion Process of LEDs and LED Lighting Systems;400
9.5.1;30.1 Luminous Efficacy and the Conversion Efficiency from Electrical Input into Photosynthetically Active Radiation;400
9.5.2;30.2 Light and Electricity Use Efficiencies;402
9.5.2.1;30.2.1 PAR Energy Use Efficiency and Electrical Energy Use Efficiency Based on Plant Dry Mass;402
9.5.2.2;30.2.2 Photosynthetic Photon Use Efficiency and Electrical Energy Use Efficiency Based on Net Photosynthetic Rate;403
9.5.3;30.3 Factors Affecting Electrical Energy Use Efficiency Based on Plant Dry Mass;404
9.5.3.1;30.3.1 Electrical Energy Consumed by Lamps During Cultivation per Cultivation Area and PAR Energy per Cultivation Area Emitted...;404
9.5.3.2;30.3.2 PAR Energy Received in Cultivation Area with or Without Plants;405
9.5.3.3;30.3.3 Light Energy Fixation as Chemical Energy of Plant Dry Mass;407
9.5.4;References;408
9.6;Chapter 31: Health Effects of Occupational Exposure to LED Light: A Special Reference to Plant Cultivation Works in Plant Factories;411
9.6.1;31.1 Introduction;411
9.6.2;31.2 Color Perception and Plant Cultivation Work;412
9.6.2.1;31.2.1 Neural Basis of Color Perception;412
9.6.2.2;31.2.2 Psychophysical Laws of Color Perception;414
9.6.2.3;31.2.3 The Standard Chromaticity Diagram;415
9.6.2.4;31.2.4 Color Constancy;417
9.6.2.5;31.2.5 Color Appearance of Green Plants Under LED Lighting;418
9.6.3;31.3 Possible Health Effects of Monochromatic LED Light in Plant Factories and Greenhouses with Artificial Lighting;419
9.6.3.1;31.3.1 Circadian Rhythm;419
9.6.3.2;31.3.2 Hazardous Effects of BL on the Eye;421
9.6.3.3;31.3.3 Hazardous Effects of UV-C on the Eye;422
9.6.4;31.4 Glare and Plant Cultivation Works;422
9.6.5;31.5 The Desirable Lighting Environment for the Laborers and the Occupational Health Regulations of Lighting;423
9.6.6;References;424
9.7;Chapter 32: Moving Toward Self-Learning Closed Plant Production Systems;426
9.7.1;32.1 Introduction;426
9.7.2;32.2 Mission;427
9.7.3;32.3 Next-Generation CPPS: s-CPPS;427
9.7.4;References;429
10;Index;430