Kundu Nonlinear Ultrasonic and Vibro-Acoustical Techniques for Nondestructive Evaluation

1. Auflage 2018
ISBN: 978-3-319-94476-0
Verlag: Springer International Publishing
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 761 Seiten

This multi-contributed volume provides a practical, applications-focused introduction to nonlinear acoustical techniques for nondestructive evaluation. Compared to linear techniques, nonlinear acoustical/ultrasonic techniques are much more sensitive to micro-cracks and other types of small distributed damages. Most materials and structures exhibit nonlinear behavior due to the formation of dislocation and micro-cracks from fatigue or other types of repetitive loadings well before detectable macro-cracks are formed.  Nondestructive evaluation (NDE) tools that have been developed based on nonlinear acoustical techniques are capable of providing early warnings about the possibility of structural failure before detectable macro-cracks are formed. This book presents the full range of nonlinear acoustical techniques used today for NDE. The expert chapters cover both theoretical and experimental aspects, but always with an eye towards applications. Unlike other titles currently available, which treat nonlinearity as a physics problem and focus on different analytical derivations, the present volume emphasizes NDE applications over detailed analytical derivations. The introductory chapter presents the fundamentals in a manner accessible to anyone with an undergraduate degree in Engineering or Physics and equips the reader with all of the necessary background to understand the remaining chapters. This self-contained volume will be a valuable reference to graduate students through practising researchers in Engineering, Materials Science, and Physics.
Represents the first book on nonlinear acoustical techniques for NDE applications
Emphasizes applications of nonlinear acoustical techniques
Presents the fundamental physics and mathematics behind nonlinear acoustical phenomenon in a simple, easily understood manner
Covers a variety of popular NDE techniques based on nonlinear acoustics in a single volume

Tribikram Kundu is a Professor in the Department of Civil Engineering and Engineering Mechanics at the University of Arizona.  Dr. Kundu has made significant and original contributions in both basic and applied research in nondestructive testing (NDT) and structural health monitoring (SHM) by ultrasonic and electromagnetic techniques. His fundamental research interests are monitoring the health of existing and new structures by ultrasonic and other NDT techniques. His research requires knowledge of elastic wave propogation in multi-layered solids, fracture mechanics, computational mechanic, geo- and biomechanics. He has collaborated extensively with international and U.S. scientists. He has spent 28 months in the Department of Biology, J.W. Goethe University, Frankfurt, Germany, first as an Alexander von Humboldt Fellow and then as a Humboldt Research Prize winner. He is a Fellow of the Acoustical Society of America.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Kundu, Tribikram

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Contents;8
2;Contributors;10
3;1 Fundamentals of Nonlinear Acoustical Techniques and Sideband Peak Count;14
3.1;1.1 Introduction;14
3.2;1.2 Mechanics of Higher Harmonic Generation for Bulk Waves;17
3.2.1;1.2.1 Nonlinear Wave Equations;17
3.2.2;1.2.2 Acoustic Nonlinear Parameters for Longitudinal Waves;20
3.2.3;1.2.3 Acoustic Nonlinear Parameter for Transverse Waves;22
3.2.4;1.2.4 Use of Nonlinear Bulk Waves for Nondestructive Evaluation;25
3.2.4.1;1.2.4.1 Nonlinear Acoustic Parameter Measurement;25
3.2.4.2;1.2.4.2 Specimens and Experimental Setup;26
3.3;1.3 Higher Harmonic Generation for Guided Waves;29
3.3.1;1.3.1 Acoustic Nonlinear Parameter for Surface Wave Propagation;29
3.3.2;1.3.2 NDE Application Potential of Nonlinear Surface Waves;32
3.3.3;1.3.3 Nonlinear Lamb Waves;34
3.3.3.1;1.3.3.1 Phase Matched Lamb Wave Modes;36
3.3.4;1.3.4 NDE Applications of Nonlinear Lamb Waves;37
3.3.4.1;1.3.4.1 Example 1: Detection of Thermal Fatigue in Composites by Second Harmonic Lamb Waves;37
3.3.4.2;1.3.4.2 Example 2: Assessment of Thermal Fatigue in Pipes by Nonlinear Guided Waves;43
3.4;1.4 Higher Harmonic Generation by Different Types of Material Nonlinearity;52
3.5;1.5 Acoustoelastic Technique;55
3.6;1.6 Nonlinear Resonance Techniques;58
3.7;1.7 Pump Wave and Probe Wave-Based Techniques;62
3.7.1;1.7.1 Nonlinear Wave Modulation Spectroscopy (NWMS);62
3.7.1.1;1.7.1.1 Mathematical Proof of the Side Band Generation;63
3.7.1.2;1.7.1.2 Experimental Configuration;65
3.7.2;1.7.2 Dynamic Acoustoelastic Test (DAET);66
3.7.3;1.7.3 Pump Wave After-Effect Monitoring Through Coda Wave Interferometry;69
3.8;1.8 Subharmonic Phased Array for Crack Evaluation (SPACE);70
3.9;1.9 Collinear and Non–Collinear Wave Mixing Techniques;71
3.9.1;1.9.1 Collinear Wave Mixing Technique;71
3.9.2;1.9.2 Non-Collinear Wave Mixing Technique;72
3.10;1.10 Recent Advances of Wave Modulation Techniques;73
3.10.1;1.10.1 Finding Optimal Combinations of Probing and Pumping Frequencies;74
3.10.2;1.10.2 Sideband Peak Count (SPC) Technique;75
3.10.2.1;1.10.2.1 Crack Detection in Aluminum Plate Specimens;84
3.10.2.2;1.10.2.2 Crack Detection in Aircraft Fitting-Lugs;88
3.10.2.3;1.10.2.3 Crack Localization in Aluminum Plate Specimens;90
3.11;1.11 Concluding Remarks;94
3.12;References;95
4;2 Nonlinear Resonant Ultrasound Spectroscopy: Assessing Global Damage;102
4.1;2.1 Introduction and Motivation;102
4.2;2.2 Nonlinearity in General: Background;103
4.3;2.3 Nonlinear Resonance Techniques: History;106
4.3.1;2.3.1 Complication: Rate Dependence;107
4.3.2;2.3.2 Complication: Hysteresis;110
4.4;2.4 Demonstration: Nonlinearity Correlates with Damage;110
4.5;2.5 Conclusions;112
4.6;References;112
5;3 Modeling and Numerical Simulations in Nonlinear Acoustics Used for Damage Detection;115
5.1;3.1 Introduction;115
5.2;3.2 Nonlinear Elastic Wave Propagation Problem Formulation;120
5.3;3.3 Numerical Models for Wave Propagation in Nonlinear Media;127
5.3.1;3.3.1 Nonlinear Media Models;129
5.3.1.1;3.3.1.1 The Finite Element Method for Wave Propagation in Nonlinear Media;130
5.3.1.2;3.3.1.2 The Local Interaction Simulation Approach for Wave Propagation in Nonlinear Media;133
5.3.2;3.3.2 Nonlinear Damage Models;135
5.3.3;3.3.3 Models Implemented Within the Finite Element Method Framework;137
5.3.3.1;3.3.3.1 Activation/Deactivation Method;137
5.3.3.2;3.3.3.2 Penalty Method;139
5.3.4;3.3.4 Models Within the Local Interaction Simulation Approach Framework;140
5.3.4.1;3.3.4.1 Spring Model;140
5.3.4.2;3.3.4.2 Coulomb Friction Model;143
5.4;3.4 Discussion and Conclusions;144
5.5;References;146
6;4 Structural Damage Detection Based on Nonlinear Acoustics: Application Examples;150
6.1;4.1 Introduction;150
6.2;4.2 Theoretical Background;151
6.3;4.3 Experimental Examples;155
6.3.1;4.3.1 Overview;155
6.3.2;4.3.2 Glass;157
6.3.3;4.3.3 Aluminium;158
6.3.4;4.3.4 Composite Laminates;165
6.3.4.1;4.3.4.1 Local Defect Resonance;168
6.3.4.2;4.3.4.2 Vibro-Acoustic Modulation-Based Damage Imaging;172
6.3.4.3;4.3.4.3 Triple Correlation for Damage Detection in Composite Structures;174
6.3.5;4.3.5 Composite Sandwich Panels;176
6.3.5.1;4.3.5.1 Chiral Core Sandwich Panel;176
6.3.5.2;4.3.5.2 Foam Core Sandwich Panel;179
6.4;4.4 Final Remarks;181
6.5;References;182
7;5 Nonlinear and Hysteretic Constitutive Models for Wave Propagation in Solid Media with Cracks and Contacts;186
7.1;5.1 Introduction;186
7.2;5.2 Multiscale Approach and Three Contact Regimes;188
7.3;5.3 Brief History of the Mechanical Contact Problem;190
7.4;5.4 Normal Load–Displacement Relationship for Contact Between Rough Surfaces;191
7.5;5.5 Reduced Elastic Friction Principle;195
7.6;5.6 Method of Memory Diagrams for Partial Slip;199
7.6.1;5.6.1 Case of Constant Compression;200
7.6.2;5.6.2 Case of Overloading;201
7.6.3;5.6.3 Memory Diagrams for Arbitrary Loading Histories;204
7.6.3.1;5.6.3.1 Case YY;205
7.6.3.2;5.6.3.2 Case YN;207
7.6.3.3;5.6.3.3 Case N;208
7.6.4;5.6.4 Retrieving Physical Characteristics from Memory Diagram;210
7.6.5;5.6.5 Numerical Implementation and Examples;212
7.6.6;5.6.6 Summary of the Method of Memory Diagrams;215
7.7;5.7 Complete Contact Model Accounting for Three Contact Regimes;217
7.7.1;5.7.1 Partial Slip and Total Sliding Displacement Components;217
7.7.1.1;5.7.1.1 Contact Loss;218
7.7.1.2;5.7.1.2 Total Sliding;219
7.7.1.3;5.7.1.3 Partial Slip;219
7.7.2;5.7.2 Numerical Example;220
7.8;5.8 Finite Element Simulations Using the Developed Contact Model;223
7.8.1;5.8.1 General Remarks;223
7.8.2;5.8.2 Numerical Implementation of the Constitutive Crack Model;224
7.8.3;5.8.3 Test Sample Geometry and Physical Parameters;225
7.8.4;5.8.4 Nonlinear Hysteretic Tangential Behavior of Horizontal Crack;226
7.8.5;5.8.5 Nonlinear Normal and Tangential Behavior of Inclined Crack;229
7.9;5.9 Conclusions;233
7.10;References;234
8;6 Nonlinear Ultrasonic Techniques for Material Characterization;236
8.1;6.1 Time Harmonic Wave Motion in Elastic Solids with Quadratic Nonlinearity;236
8.1.1;6.1.1 Governing Equations;236
8.1.2;6.1.2 One-Dimensional Wave Propagation;240
8.1.3;6.1.3 Nonlinear Wave Mixing;243
8.1.3.1;6.1.3.1 Mixing of Two Collinear Longitudinal Plane Waves;245
8.1.3.2;6.1.3.2 Mixing of Two Collinear Transverse Plane Waves;246
8.1.3.3;6.1.3.3 Mixing of Collinear Longitudinal and Transverse Plane Waves;246
8.1.4;6.1.4 Rayleigh Surface Waves;247
8.1.5;6.1.5 Lamb Waves;250
8.1.5.1;6.1.5.1 Solution for the Secondary Field;250
8.1.5.2;6.1.5.2 Some Properties of the Secondary Lamb Wave Modes;253
8.2;6.2 Measurement Techniques for Nonlinear Ultrasound and Their Applications;256
8.2.1;6.2.1 Through-Transmission of Bulk Waves;256
8.2.2;6.2.2 Collinear Wave Mixing;258
8.2.3;6.2.3 Rayleigh Surface Waves;262
8.2.4;6.2.4 Lamb Waves;268
8.3;6.3 Summary;269
8.4;References;270
9;7 Second-Harmonic Generation at Contacting Interfaces;273
9.1;7.1 Nonlinear Spring-Type Interface Model for Contacting Rough Surfaces;273
9.2;7.2 Second-Harmonic Generation by Plane Longitudinal Wave at Normal Incidence;277
9.2.1;7.2.1 Time-Domain Formulation;277
9.2.2;7.2.2 Perturbation Analysis;279
9.2.3;7.2.3 Frequency-Domain Analysis;282
9.2.4;7.2.4 Note on the Power-Law Stiffness–Pressure Relation;287
9.3;7.3 Second-Harmonic Generation by Plane Shear Wave at Normal Incidence;288
9.4;7.4 Second-Harmonic Generation by Plane Longitudinal Wave at Oblique Incidence;291
9.4.1;7.4.1 Formulation;291
9.4.2;7.4.2 Linear Response;293
9.4.3;7.4.3 Quadratic Nonlinear Response;297
9.5;7.5 Experimental Aspects;301
9.5.1;7.5.1 Quantitative Evaluation of the Second-Harmonic Amplitude;301
9.5.2;7.5.2 Comparison with the Prediction Based on the Nonlinear Spring-Type Interface Model;305
9.5.3;7.5.3 Other Experimental Investigations;307
9.6;References;308
10;8 Nonlinear Acoustic Response of Damage Applied for Diagnostic Imaging;310
10.1;8.1 Introduction;310
10.2;8.2 CAN Mechanisms and Nonlinear Vibration Spectra of Fractured Defects;312
10.3;8.3 Nonlinear Spectra of Damage and Defect–Selective Imaging;315
10.3.1;8.3.1 Nonlinear Imaging Via Laser Scanning Vibrometry;319
10.3.2;8.3.2 Nonlinear Air-Coupled Emission (NACE);321
10.4;8.4 Local Defect Resonance: Concept, Simulations, and Experimental Evidence;325
10.4.1;8.4.1 LDR Concept and FEM Simulation;326
10.4.2;8.4.2 LDR Experimental Evidence and Study;328
10.5;8.5 Resonant Nonlinearity of Defects;331
10.5.1;8.5.1 LDR: Enhanced “Classical” Nonlinear Effects;331
10.5.2;8.5.2 Superharmonic Resonances;334
10.5.3;8.5.3 Combination Frequency Resonance;336
10.5.4;8.5.4 Parametric and Subharmonic Resonances;337
10.6;8.6 Resonant Nonlinear Defect-Selective Imaging;340
10.6.1;8.6.1 Contact Activation of Damage;340
10.6.2;8.6.2 Noncontact Nonlinear Imaging of Damage;345
10.7;8.7 Conclusions;350
10.8;References;351
11;9 Nonlinear Guided Waves and Thermal Stresses;353
11.1;9.1 Nonlinear Guided Waves in Isotropic Plates and Rods (Analytical Method);353
11.1.1;9.1.1 Introduction;353
11.1.2;9.1.2 Nonlinear Strain Energy Expression;355
11.1.3;9.1.3 Nonlinear Equation of Motion for a Waveguide;356
11.1.4;9.1.4 Waveguide Mode Orthogonality;359
11.1.5;9.1.5 Complex Reciprocity Relation;360
11.1.6;9.1.6 Nonlinear Lamb Waves;362
11.1.6.1;9.1.6.1 Statement of the Problem;362
11.1.7;9.1.7 Solution to Nonlinear Problem;363
11.1.7.1;9.1.7.1 Forced Solution to Guided Waves;363
11.1.7.2;9.1.7.2 Perturbation;364
11.1.7.3;9.1.7.3 Solution;364
11.1.8;9.1.8 Condition for the Absence of Antisymmetric Modes;365
11.1.9;9.1.9 Application to First-Order Nonlinearity;366
11.1.10;9.1.10 A Representative Simulation Confirmation: Nonlinear SAFE Analysis in Plates;368
11.1.11;9.1.11 Application to Higher-Order Harmonics;370
11.1.12;9.1.12 Experimental Confirmation;372
11.1.13;9.1.13 Conclusions;374
11.1.14;9.1.14 Nonlinearity in Rods;374
11.1.15;9.1.15 Solution to the Nonlinear Problem;377
11.1.16;9.1.16 Analysis of Solution;378
11.1.17;9.1.17 Conclusions;382
11.2;9.2 Nonlinear Waves in Waveguides of Arbitrary Cross-Sections (Semi-Analytical Computational Method);383
11.2.1;9.2.1 Introduction;383
11.2.2;9.2.2 Waves in Nonlinear Elastic Regime: Internal Resonance;383
11.2.3;9.2.3 Nonlinear Semi-Analytical Algorithm;387
11.2.4;9.2.4 Application: Railroad Track;389
11.2.4.1;9.2.4.1 Nonresonant Combination;391
11.2.4.2;9.2.4.2 Resonant Combination;393
11.2.5;9.2.5 Application: Viscoelastic Isotropic Plate;394
11.2.6;9.2.6 Application: Anisotropic Elastic Composite Laminate;396
11.2.7;9.2.7 Application: Reinforced Concrete Slab;399
11.2.8;9.2.8 Conclusions;402
11.3;9.3 Nonlinear Waves in Constrained Solids Under Temperature Fluctuations (Thermal Stress Case);403
11.3.1;9.3.1 Introduction;403
11.3.2;9.3.2 Model;403
11.3.2.1;9.3.2.1 Interatomic Potential;404
11.3.2.2;9.3.2.2 Potential Energy for Constrained Thermal Expansion;405
11.3.2.3;9.3.2.3 Nonlinear Wave Equation for Constrained Thermal Expansion;409
11.3.2.4;9.3.2.4 Solution of the Nonlinear Wave Equation: Second-Harmonic Wave Generation for Constrained Thermal Expansion;414
11.3.3;9.3.3 Experimental Validation: Nonlinear Waves in a Steel Block under Constrained Thermal Expansion;415
11.3.4;9.3.4 Conclusions;420
11.4;A.1 Appendix;421
11.5;References;422
12;10 Subharmonic Phased Array for Crack Evaluation (SPACE);426
12.1;10.1 Introduction;426
12.2;10.2 Theory of Subharmonic Generation at Closed Cracks;427
12.2.1;10.2.1 Historical Context;427
12.2.2;10.2.2 Analytical Theory [14, 15, 20];428
12.2.3;10.2.3 Numerical Theory [14, 34, 35];435
12.3;10.3 Principle of SPACE;439
12.4;10.4 Experiments;443
12.4.1;10.4.1 Open and Closed Fatigue Cracks [5, 6];443
12.4.2;10.4.2 Dependence of a Fatigue Crack on Crack Closure Stress [5, 6];444
12.4.3;10.4.3 Fatigue Crack Growth Monitoring [41, 42];447
12.4.4;10.4.4 Closed Cracks Generated in Manufacturing Process [45];450
12.4.5;10.4.5 Stress Corrosion Crack (SCC) Extending from a Deep Fatigue Precrack [47];455
12.4.6;10.4.6 SCC Formed in a Weld Under Realistic Conditions [40];458
12.4.7;10.4.7 SPACE Using Surface Acoustic Wave (SAW) [51, 52];466
12.5;10.5 Conclusions;472
12.6;References;474
13;11 A Unified Treatment of Nonlinear Viscoelasticity and Non-equilibrium Dynamics;477
13.1;11.1 Introduction;477
13.2;11.2 Physical Modeling;478
13.2.1;11.2.1 Nonlinear Elastodynamics;479
13.2.2;11.2.2 Internal-Variable Model of Slow Dynamics;480
13.2.3;11.2.3 Viscoelasticity;481
13.3;11.3 Numerical Modeling;483
13.3.1;11.3.1 Numerical Strategy;484
13.3.2;11.3.2 Finite-Volume Method;485
13.4;11.4 Numerical Experiments;485
13.4.1;11.4.1 Dynamic Acoustoelasticity;486
13.4.2;11.4.2 Resonance Curves;486
13.5;11.5 Conclusion;488
13.6;References;490
14;12 Cement-Based Material Characterization Using Nonlinear Single-Impact Resonant Acoustic Spectroscopy (NSIRAS);493
14.1;12.1 Introduction;493
14.2;12.2 Background;496
14.3;12.3 Signal Processing for Single-Impact Vibration;499
14.3.1;12.3.1 Sliding Window;499
14.3.2;12.3.2 Time Domain Fitting;500
14.4;12.4 Damage Quantification from a Single-Impact Response;502
14.5;12.5 Sources of Variability and Systematic Errors;504
14.5.1;12.5.1 Errors in Nonlinear Parameter Estimation;505
14.5.2;12.5.2 Effect of Test Configuration;506
14.5.3;12.5.3 Double-Hump Effect;507
14.5.4;12.5.4 Environmental Factors: Internal Moisture and Temperature;509
14.5.5;12.5.5 Material Conditioning;509
14.6;12.6 Concluding Remarks;510
14.7;References;511
15;13 Dynamic Acousto-Elastic Testing;515
15.1;13.1 Introduction;515
15.1.1;13.1.1 Inspirations and Principles of Dynamic Acousto-Elastic Testing;515
15.1.2;13.1.2 Comparison with Other Methods;518
15.2;13.2 Experimental Setups;518
15.2.1;13.2.1 Low-Frequency Pump Wave: Quasi-Homogeneous and Quasi-Static Requirements;519
15.2.2;13.2.2 Ultrasonic Probe Wave: Type, Amplitude, Position, and Orientation;520
15.2.3;13.2.3 Clock Synchronization and Phase Noise;521
15.2.4;13.2.4 DAET with Stationary Pump Wave;523
15.2.5;13.2.5 DAET with Propagative Pump Wave;524
15.3;13.3 Signal Analysis;525
15.3.1;13.3.1 Analysis of the Pump: Calculation of Strain/Stress Produced by the Pump Wave That is Experienced by the Probe Wave;525
15.3.2;13.3.2 Analysis of the Probe: Determination of the Change of Travel Time of the Probe Wave;526
15.3.3;13.3.3 Investigating the Relation Between the Change of Wave-Speed of the Probe and the Magnitude of the Pump Stress/Strain;529
15.3.4;13.3.4 Alternative Measures of Acoustic Nonlinearity;530
15.4;13.4 Observations in Different Materials;532
15.4.1;13.4.1 Liquids;533
15.4.1.1;13.4.1.1 Non-Bubbly Liquid;534
15.4.1.2;13.4.1.2 Liquid with Suspension of Gas MicroBubbles;534
15.4.1.3;13.4.1.3 Water-Saturated Glass Beads;535
15.4.2;13.4.2 Solids;535
15.4.2.1;13.4.2.1 Undamaged Homogeneous Solids;535
15.4.2.2;13.4.2.2 Damaged Homogeneous Solids;536
15.4.2.3;13.4.2.3 Rocks, Cementitious, and Granular Materials;538
15.5;13.5 Conclusions;548
15.6;References;549
16;14 Time Reversal Techniques;553
16.1;14.1 What Is Time Reversal?;553
16.1.1;14.1.1 Pebble on a Pond;553
16.1.2;14.1.2 Time Reversal in a Bounded Medium;554
16.1.3;14.1.3 Characteristics of Time Reversal;557
16.1.4;14.1.4 Methods of Time Reversal;558
16.1.5;14.1.5 Benefits and Limitations of Time Reversal;565
16.1.6;14.1.6 Applications of Time Reversal;566
16.2;14.2 Time Reversal for Locating Damage;568
16.2.1;14.2.1 Nonlinear Signatures of Defects;568
16.2.2;14.2.2 Time Reversal of Nonlinear Features Detected Remotely (Standard Time Reversal);569
16.2.3;14.2.3 Focusing Elastic Wave Energy for Localized Nonlinear Inspection (Reciprocal Time Reversal);572
16.2.4;14.2.4 Surficial and Depth Imaging with Time Reversal;576
16.2.5;14.2.5 Three-Dimensional Time Reversal Focusing;577
16.3;14.3 Conclusion;581
16.4;References;582
17;15 Nonlocal and Coda Wave Quantification of Damage Precursors in Composite from Nonlinear Ultrasonic Response;588
17.1;15.1 Introduction;589
17.1.1;15.1.1 Bottom-Up Multiscale Predictive Failure Models;591
17.1.2;15.1.2 Unifying Bottom-Up and Top-Down Approaches;592
17.2;15.2 Theoretical Development for Quantitative Ultrasonic Image Correlation: High-Frequency Method;594
17.2.1;15.2.1 Nonlocal Approach and Micromorphic Kernel Function;594
17.2.2;15.2.2 Fundamental Equation of Motion with Nonlocal Parameters;596
17.2.3;15.2.3 The Eigenvalue Problem;597
17.3;15.3 Damage State Quantification Process;599
17.3.1;15.3.1 Incremental Damage State and Its Relation with Nonlocal Parameters;599
17.3.2;15.3.2 Understanding Material Signature Using Scanning Acoustic Microscope;600
17.3.3;15.3.3 Identification of Nonlocal Parameter from Scanning Acoustic Microscope Data;603
17.3.4;15.3.4 Nonlocal Damage Entropy: Precursor Quantification Process Using Scanning Acoustic Microscope and Quantitative Ultrasonic Image Correlation;605
17.3.5;15.3.5 Damage State Quantification from Evaluation of Stiffness Degradation;607
17.4;15.4 Coda Wave Interferometry: Low-Frequency Method;608
17.4.1;15.4.1 Background;608
17.4.2;15.4.2 Mathematical Treatment of Coda Wave for Damage Quantification;609
17.4.2.1;15.4.2.1 Stretching Technique with Cross-Correlation;609
17.4.2.2;15.4.2.2 Taylor Series Expansion Theory;611
17.4.2.3;15.4.2.3 Application of Coda Wave Interferometry for Precursor Quantification in Composites;611
17.5;15.5 Experimental Design;612
17.5.1;15.5.1 Materials and Specimen Preparation [136, 137];612
17.5.2;15.5.2 Tensile Test;613
17.5.3;15.5.3 Fatigue Testing;614
17.5.4;15.5.4 Pitch-Catch Ultrasonic Lamb Wave Experiment;616
17.6;15.6 Results and Discussion;616
17.6.1;15.6.1 Probability Distribution of Quasi-Longitudinal Wave Velocity;616
17.6.2;15.6.2 Precursor Damage Quantification Using Coda Wave Interferometry;617
17.6.3;15.6.3 Precursor Damage Quantification Using Nonlocal-Continuum Physics;620
17.6.4;15.6.4 Precursor Damage Indication from SAW Velocity Profiles;621
17.6.5;15.6.5 Damage Characterization Using Optical Microcopy: Verification;622
17.6.6;15.6.6 Damage Characterization Using Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM);623
17.6.7;15.6.7 Damage Characterization from Scanning Acoustic Microscopy;624
17.7;15.7 Conclusions;624
17.8;References;625
18;16 Anharmonic Interactions of Probing Ultrasonic Waves with Applied Loads Including Applications Suitable for Structural Health Monitoring;632
18.1;16.1 Introduction;632
18.2;16.2 Basic Theoretical Background and Modeling;635
18.3;16.3 Experimental Set-Up and Monitoring Schemes;643
18.4;16.4 Monitoring of Stress and Strain with Acoustic Waves;649
18.5;16.5 Related Applications of the Developed Monitoring Scheme;659
18.6;References;662
19;17 Noncontact Nonlinear Ultrasonic Wave Modulation for Fatigue Crack and Delamination Detection;665
19.1;17.1 Introduction;665
19.2;17.2 Noncontact Ultrasonic Generation and Measurement;667
19.2.1;17.2.1 Electromagnetic Acoustic Transducer (EMAT);668
19.2.2;17.2.2 Air-Coupled Transducer (ACT);668
19.2.3;17.2.3 Laser-Based Ultrasonic Generation;670
19.2.4;17.2.4 Laser-Based Ultrasonic Measurement;670
19.2.5;17.2.5 Laser Ultrasonic Scanning System;672
19.2.6;17.2.6 Different Scanning Strategies;672
19.3;17.3 Basic Principle of Nonlinear Ultrasonic Modulation;674
19.3.1;17.3.1 Nonlinear Ultrasonic Modulation;674
19.3.2;17.3.2 Necessary Conditions for Nonlinear Ultrasonic Modulation;675
19.3.3;17.3.3 Controlling of the Inputs for Nonlinear Ultrasonic Modulation;677
19.4;17.4 Damage Detection Techniques Using Noncontact Nonlinear Ultrasonic Modulation;679
19.4.1;17.4.1 Sequential Outlier Analysis Technique;680
19.4.2;17.4.2 Spatial Comparison Technique;680
19.4.3;17.4.3 Sideband Peak Count Technique;681
19.4.4;17.4.4 State Space Attractor Technique;684
19.5;17.5 Applications Using ACT-Based Measurement Systems;687
19.5.1;17.5.1 Fatigue Crack Detection in Plates;687
19.5.2;17.5.2 Fatigue Crack Detection in Rotating Shafts;689
19.6;17.6 Applications Using Laser-Based Measurement Systems;691
19.6.1;17.6.1 Fatigue Crack Detection on Plates;691
19.6.2;17.6.2 Delamination/Debonding Detection on Wind Turbine Blades;694
19.7;17.7 Discussions;697
19.8;17.8 Conclusions;698
19.9;References;698
20;18 Characterizing Fatigue Cracks Using Active Sensor Networks;702
20.1;18.1 Introduction;702
20.2;18.2 Guided Waves in Plate-like Structures;704
20.2.1;18.2.1 Fundamentals of Lamb Waves;704
20.2.2;18.2.2 Linear Features of Lamb Waves for Identification of Gross Damage;706
20.2.3;18.2.3 Nonlinear Features of Lamb Waves for Characterization of Undersized Damage;708
20.3;18.3 Modeling of Nonlinear Attributes of Lamb Waves;709
20.3.1;18.3.1 Modeling Nonlinearities in an Elastic Medium;710
20.3.1.1;18.3.1.1 Intact Medium;710
20.3.1.2;18.3.1.2 Fatigued Medium;711
20.3.1.3;18.3.1.3 Contact Acoustic Nonlinearity (CAN);712
20.3.2;18.3.2 Modeling Nonlinear Lamb Waves;713
20.3.3;18.3.3 Realization in Finite Element Method;717
20.3.4;18.3.4 Simulation Results and Experimental Validation;720
20.3.4.1;18.3.4.1 RANP vs. Wave Propagation;720
20.3.4.2;18.3.4.2 RANP vs. Sensing Path Offset;722
20.3.4.3;18.3.4.3 Dependence on Angle of Incidence and Wave Propagation Distance;725
20.4;18.4 System Development for Implementation;726
20.4.1;18.4.1 Decentralized Standard Sensing;727
20.4.2;18.4.2 Development of a Modularized In Situ Diagnostic System;729
20.5;18.5 Characterization of Multiple Fatigue Cracks in Aluminum Plates;729
20.5.1;18.5.1 Experimental Investigation;731
20.5.2;18.5.2 Signal Processing and Imaging;733
20.5.3;18.5.3 Results and Discussions;736
20.6;18.6 Conclusions;737
20.7;References;740
21;Index;743