Leblanc / Aplin / Yair Planetary Atmospheric Electricity

1. Auflage 2008
ISBN: 978-0-387-87664-1
Verlag: Springer-Verlag
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: Adobe DRM (»Systemvoraussetzungen)

E-Book, Englisch, 532 Seiten

Autoren/Hrsg.

Leblanc, François

Aplin, Karen

Yair, Yoav

Harrison, Giles

Blanc, M.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Foreword;7
2;Planetary Atmospheric Electricity;10
2.1;Abstract;10
2.2;Electrification in Atmospheres;10
2.3;Ion Production, Clouds and Atmospheric Discharges;11
2.4;Evidence for Planetary Atmospheric Electrification;12
2.5;Atmospheric Current Flow and Global Electrical Circuits;13
2.6;Significance of Atmospheric Electrification;13
2.7;Conclusions;14
2.8;References;15
3;Investigating Earth's Atmospheric Electricity: a Role Model for Planetary Studies;16
3.1;Abstract;16
3.2;Historical Introduction;17
3.3;Development of the Global Circuit Concept;19
3.4;Properties of the Global Electric Circuit;20
3.5;Discussion;24
3.5.1;Concepts Needed in Originating the Idea of a Global Circuit;25
3.5.2;Detection of Planetary Atmospheric Global Circuits;28
3.6;Acknowledgements;30
3.7;References;30
4;Updated Review of Planetary Atmospheric Electricity;33
4.1;Abstract;33
4.2;Introduction;34
4.2.1;Existing and New Observation Platforms and Technologies;35
4.2.1.1;Spacecraft;35
4.2.1.1.1;Cassini/Huygens:;35
4.2.1.1.2;New Horizons:;35
4.2.1.1.3;Mars Express (MEX):;36
4.2.1.1.4;Venus Express (VEX):;36
4.2.1.1.5;Earth Orbiting Spacecraft:;36
4.2.1.2;Telescopes;37
4.2.1.2.1;UTR-2:;37
4.2.1.2.2;LOFAR:;37
4.2.1.2.3;NASA/IRTF:;37
4.3;Lightning Activity and Atmospheric Electricity on Solid Surface Bodies;37
4.3.1;Earth;37
4.3.1.1;Lightning;38
4.3.1.2;Transient Luminous Events;39
4.3.1.3;Terrestrial Gamma Ray Flashes (TGFs);39
4.3.2;Venus;40
4.3.3;Mars;42
4.3.4;Titan;43
4.4;Lightning Activity and Atmospheric Electricity at the Gas Giants;45
4.4.1;Jupiter;46
4.4.2;Saturn;47
4.4.3;Uranus and Neptune;48
4.5;Laboratory Experiments;48
4.6;Summary and Future Prospects;50
4.7;References;50
5;Physical Processes Related to Discharges in Planetary Atmospheres;54
5.1;Abstract;54
5.2;Electron Transport and Avalanche in Gases;55
5.3;Kinetic Theory;57
5.3.1;Kinetic Equations for Runaway Breakdown;58
5.3.2;Kinetic Equations for Conventional Breakdown;60
5.4;Interaction Cross-Sections for Planetary Gases;60
5.4.1;Input to Non-relativistic Boltzmann Collision Integral;60
5.4.1.1;Nitrogen;61
5.4.1.2;Oxygen;62
5.4.1.3;Hydrogen;63
5.4.1.4;Carbon Dioxide;65
5.4.1.5;Methane;65
5.4.1.6;Helium;65
5.4.2;Input to Relativistic Boltzmann Equation;66
5.5;Solutions of the Kinetic Equations;67
5.5.1;Numerical Solution Techniques;67
5.5.1.1;Relativistic Boltzmann Equation;67
5.5.1.2;Non-relativistic Boltzmann Equation;69
5.5.2;Results;69
5.5.2.1;Runaway Breakdown Regime;70
5.5.2.2;Non-relativistic Regime;71
5.5.3;Summary of Planets;71
5.6;Earth's High-Altitude Discharges;73
5.6.1;General Phenomenology of Sprites;78
5.7;Implications for Planetary Atmospheres;82
5.8;Acknowledgements;83
5.9;References;83
6;An Overview of Earth's Global Electric Circuit and Atmospheric Conductivity;86
6.1;Abstract;86
6.2;The Global Atmospheric Electric Circuit;87
6.3;Conductivities in the Circuit;87
6.4;Conductivity of the Earth near the Surface;88
6.5;Air Conductivity in the Lower Troposphere;88
6.6;Atmospheric Conductivity, and Properties of a Model Profile;91
6.7;Ionospheric Conductivity;97
6.8;Observations of Global Atmospheric Electric Circuit Parameters;97
6.8.1;Surface Potential Gradient Measurements in Clean Air;97
6.8.2;Ionospheric Potential Measurements;99
6.8.3;Atmospheric Electrical Measurements in Polluted Air;100
6.8.4;Similarities in Electrical Measurements at Different Sites;101
6.8.5;Influence of Solar Energetic Particles on Electrical Parameters;103
6.9;Model Studies;105
6.10;Conclusions;106
6.11;Acknowledgements;107
6.12;References;107
7;Ions in the Terrestrial Atmosphere and Other Solar System Atmospheres;109
7.1;Abstract;109
7.2;Sources of Ions and Ionization Rate;109
7.3;Evolution and Classification of Ions in the Terrestrial Troposphere;111
7.4;Relations Between Ion Size, Mass, and Mobility;112
7.5;Ion Balance Equations;116
7.6;Conclusion;119
7.7;Acknowledgement;119
7.8;References;119
8;Charge Generation and Separation Processes;121
8.1;Abstract;121
8.2;Charging of Thunderstorm;121
8.2.1;Inductive Charging;122
8.2.2;Non-inductive Charging;123
8.3;Charging Process of Solid Particles;124
8.3.1;Triboelectric Charging;124
8.3.2;Charging by Fracto-Emission;125
8.3.3;Photoelectric Charging;126
8.3.4;Effect of Chemical Composition;127
8.4;Numerical Models;127
8.4.1;Terrestrial Thunderstorm Models;127
8.4.2;Planetary Cloud and Lightning Models;130
8.5;Gaps in Knowledge;130
8.6;Conclusion;131
8.7;References;131
9;Physics of Electric Discharges in Atmospheric Gases: An Informal Introduction;134
9.1;Abstract;134
9.2;A Brief Historical Overview;135
9.3;Parameters and Theory;137
9.4;Different Types of Discharges;140
9.4.1;Townsend, Glow, and Spark Discharges;140
9.4.2;Electron Avalanches;141
9.5;Secondary Effects;143
9.5.1;Waves;143
9.5.1.1;Ion sound;143
9.5.1.2;Buneman two-stream instability;144
9.5.1.3;Phase space hole effects;144
9.5.1.4;Local whistlers;145
9.5.2;Radiation;146
9.5.2.1;Gamma- and X-rays (Bremsstrahlung);146
9.5.2.2;Radio waves: Plasma processes;146
9.5.2.3;Radio waves: Electron-cyclotron maser;147
9.6;References;147
10;Cosmic Ray Induced Ion Production in the Atmosphere;150
10.1;Abstract;150
10.2;Introduction;150
10.3;Measurements of Ionisation in the Atmosphere;152
10.3.1;Measurements of Ionisation in the Lower Atmosphere;152
10.3.1.1;Air Conductivity in the Troposphere;152
10.3.1.2;Air Conductivity Measurements on Manned Balloon Ascents;152
10.3.1.3;Measurement of Air Conductivity at Various Latitudes;153
10.3.2;Direct Observations of the Ion Production Rate and Ionising Particle Fluxes in the Atmosphere;153
10.3.2.1;Early Investigations in the Atmosphere;153
10.3.2.2;Ground-Based Cosmic Ray Flux Monitoring;154
10.3.3;Ionising Particle Fluxes at Various Latitudes and Heights in the Atmosphere;155
10.3.3.1;Long-Term Cosmic Ray Observations in the Atmosphere;155
10.3.3.2;Ionising Particles Fluxes at Various Latitudes in the Atmosphere;158
10.3.4;Temporal Variations of Ionising Particle Fluxes in the Atmosphere;159
10.4;Modelling of Cosmic Ray Induced Ionisation;163
10.4.1;Atmospheric Cascade Induced by Cosmic Rays;163
10.4.2;Numerical Models;164
10.4.3;Comparison with Measurements;165
10.4.4;Long-Term Changes;167
10.4.5;Effect of Solar Energetic Particles;168
10.4.6;Application to Other Planets;169
10.5;Summary and Conclusions;171
10.6;Acknowledgements;171
10.7;References;172
11;Meteoric Layers in Planetary Atmospheres;175
11.1;Abstract;175
11.2;Introduction;176
11.3;Evidence of Meteoroid Layers through the Solar System;177
11.3.1;Venus;177
11.3.2;Mars;177
11.3.3;Jupiter;178
11.3.4;Saturn;179
11.3.5;Neptune;180
11.4;The Interaction of Meteoroids with a Planetary Atmosphere;180
11.4.1;Interplanetary Flux;180
11.4.2;Entry Velocity;181
11.4.3;Meteoroid Ablation;182
11.5;Modelling Metallic Layers in Planetary Atmospheres;183
11.5.1;Earth;186
11.5.2;Mars;186
11.5.3;Giant Planets;188
11.5.4;Titan;189
11.6;Acknowledgements;189
11.7;References;190
12;Profiles of Ion and Aerosol Interactions in Planetary Atmospheres;192
12.1;Abstract;192
12.2;Introduction;192
12.3;Ion Production;193
12.3.1;Venus;194
12.3.2;Mars;195
12.3.3;Jupiter;195
12.3.4;Titan;195
12.4;Aerosol Characteristics;196
12.4.1;Venus;196
12.4.2;Mars;197
12.4.3;Jupiter;197
12.4.4;Titan;198
12.5;Ion-Aerosol Interactions;198
12.6;Aerosol Charging;202
12.6.1;Venus;203
12.6.2;Mars;203
12.6.3;Jupiter;204
12.6.4;Titan;204
12.7;Atmospheric Consequences of Aerosol Charging;204
12.7.1;Electrical Conductivity;204
12.7.1.1;Venus:;204
12.7.1.2;Mars:;205
12.7.1.3;Jupiter:;205
12.7.1.4;Titan:;206
12.7.2;Effect of Aerosol Charging on Physical Processes;206
12.8;Future Work;207
12.9;Acknowledgements;208
12.10;References;208
13;Composition and Measurement of Charged Atmospheric Clusters;211
13.1;Abstract;211
13.2;Introduction;211
13.3;Composition of Charged Clusters;212
13.3.1;Earth;212
13.3.2;Venus;213
13.3.3;Mars;213
13.3.4;Gas Planets: Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune;214
13.3.5;Titan;214
13.3.6;Triton;215
13.4;Measurement of Charged Clusters;215
13.4.1;In Situ Measurements;215
13.4.1.1;Mass Spectrometry;215
13.4.1.2;Electrical Mobility;216
13.4.2;Remote Sensing;216
13.4.2.1;Laboratory Tests of Infrared Absorption by Cluster-Ions;217
13.4.2.2;Atmospheric Instrumentation for Measurements of Cluster-Ion Absorption;217
13.4.2.3;Retrieval of Radiometer Response to Cluster-Ion Changes;218
13.5;Discussion;220
13.6;Acknowledgements;220
13.7;References;220
14;Atmospheric Ions and Aerosol Formation;223
14.1;Abstract;223
14.2;Introduction;223
14.3;Atmospheric Ions;225
14.4;Ion Induced Sulphuric Acid Nucleation;227
14.5;Atmospheric Sulphuric Acid;230
14.6;Observations of Large Cluster Ions in the Upper Troposphere;232
14.7;Aerosol Growth;233
14.8;Conclusions;235
14.9;Acknowledgements;235
14.10;References;235
15;Tropospheric New Particle Formation and the Role of Ions;238
15.1;Abstract;238
15.2;Introduction;239
15.3;Tropospheric Aerosol;239
15.4;Ionization, Galactic Cosmic Rays, and Clouds;240
15.5;Field Observations of New Particle Formation and Ions;241
15.6;Laboratory Measurements;242
15.7;Theory;243
15.8;Modeling;245
15.9;Summary and Outlook;247
15.10;Acknowledgements;248
15.11;References;249
16;Ground-Based and Space-Based Radio Observations of Planetary Lightning;253
16.1;Abstract;253
16.2;Lightning's Radio Signature;254
16.2.1;Lightning Basics;254
16.2.2;Interest of Planetary Lightning Studies;255
16.2.3;Radio (and Other Electromagnetic) Signatures;255
16.2.4;Time Profile and Radio Spectrum;255
16.3;Space-Based Radio Observations of Planetary Lightning;255
16.3.1;Saturn;255
16.3.2;Titan;256
16.3.3;Uranus;256
16.3.4;Neptune;256
16.3.5;Jupiter;257
16.3.6;Venus;257
16.4;Lightning and Ionospheric Probing;257
16.4.1;Saturn: LF (Low Frequency) Cutoff, Ionospheric Absorption, and Propagation over the Horizon;257
16.4.2;Jupiter: Low-Altitude Absorption;258
16.5;Compared Temporal and Spectral Characteristics;259
16.5.1;Saturn: Fast Discharges?;259
16.5.2;Jupiter: Slow Discharges?;260
16.5.3;Titan: Slow Discharges?;260
16.5.4;Venus: Slow Discharges?;260
16.6;The Case of Mars;261
16.6.1;Electrostatic Fields in Dust Devils/Storms;261
16.6.2;Nature of the Martian Discharge?;261
16.7;Prospects for Ground-Based Observations;261
16.8;Prospects for Space-Based Observations;263
16.9;Conclusions;263
16.10;References;264
17;Atmospheric Electricity at Saturn;266
17.1;Abstract;266
17.2;Introduction;266
17.3;Instruments for Lightning Detection at Saturn;267
17.3.1;Observations by Spacecraft;267
17.3.2;Earth-based Measurements;268
17.4;Occurrence Rate of Saturn Electrostatic Discharges;268
17.5;Periodicity of SED Episodes and Location of Lightning Storms;270
17.6;Some More Physical Parameters of SEDs;272
17.6.1;SED Intensity and Frequency Spectrum;272
17.6.2;SED Burst Duration and Burst Rates;272
17.7;Saturn Lightning as a Tool to Investigate Saturn's Ionosphere;273
17.7.1;Peak Electron Densities Derived from the Low Frequency Cutoff of SED Episodes;273
17.7.2;Polarization of SEDs;274
17.8;The Structure of Saturn's Atmosphere;275
17.8.1;Lightning on Jupiter as a Comparison;275
17.8.2;At What Depth is the SED Source Located?;275
17.9;Phenomena Related to Saturn Lightning;277
17.9.1;Whistlers at Saturn;277
17.9.2;Could There Be a Global Atmospheric Circuit at Saturn?;277
17.9.3;Sprites, Elves, and Gamma Ray Flashes at Saturn?;277
17.10;Summary: A Comparison between Saturn and Earth Lightning;279
17.11;References;279
18;Atmospheric Electricity Hazards;281
18.1;Abstract;281
18.2;Introduction;281
18.3;Electrical Effects on Humans;282
18.4;Electrostatic Discharge Effects on Electronics;283
18.5;Aerospace Vehicle Damage by Lightning and ESD;285
18.6;Conclusions;288
18.7;Acknowledgements;288
18.8;References;288
19;Electrical Effects on Atmospheric Chemistry;289
19.1;Abstract;289
19.2;Introduction;289
19.3;Chemistry in the Lightning Discharge;289
19.4;Mars and Venus;291
19.5;Titan;292
19.6;Jovian Planets;292
19.7;Electrostatic Discharge Chemistry beneath the Atmosphere;292
19.8;Conclusions;293
19.9;Acknowledgements;293
19.10;References;293
20;TARANIS-A Satellite Project Dedicated to the Physics of TLEs and TGFs;294
20.1;Abstract;294
20.2;Introduction;295
20.3;TARANIS Instrumentation Payload and mission profile;297
20.3.1;The Instruments;298
20.3.1.1;The MicroCamera and Photometer experiment (MCP);298
20.3.1.2;The X-ray, Gamma-ray and Relativistic electron Experiment (XGRE);298
20.3.1.3;The Energetic Electron Instrument (IDEE);299
20.3.1.4;The Low Frequency Electric Field Instrument (IME-BF) and the Ion Probe;300
20.3.1.5;The High Frequency Electric Field Measurements (IME-HF);301
20.3.1.6;The Magnetic Field Measurement (IMM);301
20.3.1.7;MEXIC;301
20.3.2;Mission Profile;302
20.4;TARANIS Contributions to Major Science Topics;302
20.4.1;TLEs and TGFs Source Regions;302
20.4.2;Associated Phenomena;303
20.4.3;Transfers of Energy Between the Radiation Belts, the Ionosphere and the Atmosphere;304
20.4.4;TLEs and TGFs Generation Mechanisms;305
20.4.5;Contribution to the Modelling of Effects on the Atmosphere and on the Global Electric Circuit;305
20.5;Summary and Conclusions;306
20.6;Acknowledgements;307
20.7;References;307
21;Lightning Detection by LAC Onboard the Japanese Venus Climate Orbiter, Planet-C;309
21.1;Abstract;309
21.2;Background of Venus Lightning Study;309
21.2.1;Prediction of Venus Lightning;310
21.2.2;Significance of Venus Lightning;311
21.2.3;Past Observations;311
21.2.3.1;Optical measurements;311
21.2.3.2;Electromagnetic Wave Observations;313
21.2.4;Venus Express and Necessary Observation in the Future Mission;315
21.3;Japanese Venus Climate Orbiter Mission: Planet-C;315
21.3.1;Scientific Objectives and Instruments;315
21.3.2;Spacecraft Design;316
21.3.3;Lightning and Airglow Camera: LAC;317
21.4;Development of LAC;318
21.4.1;Required Performances;318
21.4.2;Design of LAC;319
21.4.3;Observing Wavelengths;319
21.4.4;APD Detector;319
21.4.5;Array Bandpass Filter;320
21.4.6;Optical Design;321
21.4.7;Observation Plan and SNR Estimation;322
21.4.8;Proto Model Design;323
21.5;Summary and Conclusion;324
21.6;Acknowledgements;325
21.7;References;325
22;Charge Separation Mechanisms in Clouds;327
22.1;Abstract;327
22.2;Introduction;327
22.3;Charging Mechanisms;328
22.3.1;Drop Break-up;328
22.3.2;Ion Charging;328
22.3.3;The Convective Mechanism;329
22.3.4;Inductive Charging;330
22.4;Particle Charging Involving the Ice Phase;332
22.4.1;Workman-Reynolds Freezing Potentials;332
22.4.2;Contact Potential;332
22.4.3;Dislocation Mechanism;332
22.4.4;Temperature Gradients in Ice;333
22.4.5;Melting Effects;333
22.4.6;Ice Splinter Charging During Hallett-Mossop Ice Multiplication;333
22.4.7;Fragmentation Effects;334
22.5;Ice Crystal/Graupel Charging;335
22.5.1;Background;335
22.5.2;Thunderstorm Charge Observations;337
22.5.3;Thunderstorm Charging Requirements;337
22.5.4;Laboratory Studies of Thunderstorm Charging Processes;338
22.5.5;The Thunderstorm Charging Mechanism;339
22.6;Concluding Remarks;343
22.7;References;344
23;Charge Structure and Dynamics in Thunderstorms;346
23.1;Abstract;346
23.2;Introduction;346
23.3;Charge Distribution in Thunderstorm Convection;347
23.4;Charge Distribution in Layered Clouds Associated with Convection;350
23.4.1;Thunderstorm Anvil Clouds;350
23.4.2;MCS Stratiform Precipitation Regions;353
23.5;Charge Dynamics in Thunderstorms;355
23.5.1;Electrical Evolution in the Early Stage;356
23.5.2;Electrical Evolution in the Decay Stage;358
23.6;Thunderstorm Charge Structures in the Earth's Electric Circuit;360
23.7;Concluding Remarks;362
23.8;Acknowledgements;362
23.9;References;362
24;Formation of Charge Layers in the Planetary Atmospheres;364
24.1;Abstract;364
24.2;Introduction;364
24.3;Electric Field Generation: General Conditions;365
24.3.1;Parameterization of Planetary Atmospheres;365
24.3.2;Electric Dynamo Problem Formulation;368
24.3.3;Turbulence;369
24.4;Charged Layers in the Atmosphere and Their Theoretical Description;371
24.4.1;Large-Scale EF Profiles in the Global Circuit;372
24.4.2;Large-Scale EF Dynamical Perturbations;373
24.4.3;Electrode Effect;375
24.4.4;Fog, Clouds and Aerosol Layers;377
24.4.5;Small-Scale EF Dynamics in the Lower Atmosphere;380
24.4.6;Thunderstorm Clouds and MCSs;383
24.4.7;Charge Layers Near the 0°C Isotherm;385
24.5;Summary;386
24.6;Acknowledgements;387
24.7;References;387
25;Electrical Charging of Volcanic Plumes;389
25.1;Abstract;389
25.2;Introduction;390
25.3;Electric Charge in Terrestrial Volcanic Plumes;390
25.3.1;Silicate-Rich Plumes;390
25.3.2;Silicate-Poor Plumes;393
25.4;Charging Mechanisms;394
25.4.1;Solid-Based Charging;394
25.4.2;Liquid-Based Charging;396
25.4.3;Thundercloud-Type Charging;397
25.4.4;External Charging Mechanisms;398
25.5;Charging in Extraterrestrial Volcanism;398
25.5.1;Silicate Volcanism;398
25.5.1.1;Plumes on Venus and Mars;399
25.5.1.2;Fountains on Io and Moon;401
25.5.2;Non-silicate Volcanism (Enceladus, Tethys, Dione and Triton);401
25.6;Charge-Driven Processes;403
25.6.1;Physical Effects;403
25.6.2;Chemical Effects;404
25.7;Future Measurements;405
25.8;Summary;406
25.9;Acknowledgements;406
25.10;References;406
26;Electrical Activity and Dust Lifting on Earth, Mars, and Beyond;409
26.1;Abstract;409
26.2;Introduction;409
26.3;Dust/Sand Electrification and Its Effects on Dust Lifting and Atmospheric Chemistry;410
26.3.1;Measurements of Electrification in Saltation and Dusty Phenomena;411
26.3.2;Charge Transfer in Colliding Dust/Sand Particles;412
26.3.3;The Effects of Electric Forces on Saltation and Dust Lifting;414
26.3.4;An Example of the Effects of Electric Fields on Atmospheric Chemistry;416
26.4;Other Dust Electrification Processes and Their Effect on Dust Lifting;417
26.4.1;Dust Lifting on the Moon;417
26.4.2;Dust Lifting on Asteroids and Comets;421
26.5;Summary and Conclusions;422
26.6;Acknowledgements;422
26.7;References;422
27;The Charging of Planetary Rings;425
27.1;Abstract;425
27.2;Introduction;426
27.3;Charging Equation;427
27.3.1;Electron and Ion Capture;427
27.3.2;Photoelectron emission;428
27.3.3;Secondary Electron Emission;429
27.3.3.1;Secondary Electron Emission-Electron impact;429
27.3.3.2;Secondary Electron Emission-Ion impact;430
27.4;Equilibrium Potential;430
27.5;Dust-in-Plasma versus Dusty Plasma;430
27.6;Saturn's Ring Spokes;432
27.6.1;Overview;432
27.6.2;Spoke formation Theories;433
27.7;E Ring;435
27.7.1;Introduction;435
27.7.2;Dust Dynamics and Charging;436
27.7.3; Effects of Different Perturbing Forces;438
27.8;Special Charging Effects;440
27.8.1;Electrostatic Braking;440
27.8.2;Mach Cones;441
27.9;Acknowledgements;441
27.10;References;441
28;Schumann Resonances as a Means of Investigating the Electromagnetic Environment in the Solar System;444
28.1;Abstract;444
28.2;Introduction;445
28.3;Schumann Resonances on Earth;446
28.4;Wave Propagation and Resonances in Planet-Ionosphere Cavities;447
28.4.1;Analytical Approximation;447
28.4.2;Numerical Modelling;448
28.4.3;Cavity Parameterization;448
28.5;Planetary Cavities;450
28.5.1;Venus;451
28.5.2;Mars;451
28.5.3;Jupiter;453
28.5.4;Io and Europa;454
28.5.5;Saturn;454
28.5.6;Titan;454
28.5.7;Uranus;456
28.5.8;Neptune;456
28.6;Comparative Planetology Results;456
28.7;Summary;457
28.8;References;458
29;Blue Jets: Upward Lightning;461
29.1;Abstract;461
29.2;Introduction;461
29.3;Observations of Upward Discharges in the Atmosphere;462
29.3.1;Blue Jets and Blue Starters;462
29.3.2;Gigantic Jets;463
29.3.3;Jets and Lightning Activity;465
29.4;Modeling Jets;466
29.4.1;Basics of Transient Discharges;466
29.4.2;Earlier Streamer Models of Jets;469
29.4.3;Bi-leader Model of Jets;470
29.5;Jets Observables;472
29.5.1;Optical Emissions;472
29.5.2;Long-Lived Effects of Jets in the Stratosphere;473
29.5.2.1;Ozone Layer Perturbations;473
29.5.2.2;Conductivity Perturbations and Effects;474
29.6;Conclusion;475
29.7;Acknowledgements;475
29.8;References;475
30;VLF Studies During TLE Occurrences in Europe: A Summary of New Findings;477
30.1;Abstract;477
30.2;Introduction;478
30.3;Instrumentation;479
30.4;Summary of New Results;479
30.4.1;Sprites and Early VLF Perturbations;479
30.4.2;VLF Backscatter in Association with Sprites;481
30.4.3;Long-Delayed Sprites;483
30.4.4;Intracloud Lightning Activity and Sprite Morphology;485
30.4.5;An Explanation for Early/Slow VLF Perturbations;487
30.4.6;Estimating D-Region Electron Density Changes Related to Sprites;490
30.4.7;Elves and Early VLF Perturbations;492
30.5;Summary;495
30.6;Acknowledgement;496
30.7;References;496
31;DEMETER Observations of EM Emissions Related to Thunderstorms;499
31.1;Abstract;499
31.2;Introduction;500
31.3;The DEMETER Project;500
31.4;Phenomena Recorded by DEMETER;501
31.4.1;Multiple Hop Whistlers;501
31.4.2;Strong Interaction with LH Noise;502
31.4.3;Burst of Lightning Associated with V-shaped Emissions;503
31.4.4;Emissions in the Frequency Range up to 3 MHz Related to Some Powerful Lightning;505
31.5;Conclusion;506
31.6;Acknowledgement;507
31.7;References;507
32;On ULF Signatures of Lightning Discharges;508
32.1;Abstract;508
32.2;Introduction;509
32.2.1;Main Stream;509
32.2.2;Neglected Frequency Band;509
32.2.3;Another Cavity Resonance;510
32.2.4;New Interest by the Discovery of Sprites;510
32.2.5;Large ULF Magnetic Fields nearby Thunderstorm Centers;510
32.3;Observations;511
32.3.1;Day-Night Difference;511
32.3.2;Coupling between Atmosphere, Ionosphere and Magnetosphere;512
32.3.3;Types of Distant ULF-Response to Lightning Discharge;513
32.3.4;The Weak ULF Response to -CG Discharges;514
32.3.5;The Negative Answer;515
32.4;Theoretical Estimates and Models;515
32.4.1;The Ultra-Slow-Tail;515
32.4.2;An Answer to a Current Problem on IAR Excitation;517
32.4.3;Outlook;517
32.5;Acknowledgements;518
32.6;References;518