Li Breast Cancer Epidemiology

1. Auflage 2009
ISBN: 978-1-4419-0685-4
Verlag: Springer-Verlag
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: Adobe DRM (»Systemvoraussetzungen)

E-Book, Englisch, 417 Seiten

Breast cancer remains a disease of considerable public health importance worldwide, with over 800,000 new cases diagnosed globally each year. Considerable energy is currently being spent by researchers to further our understanding of this complex disease, however, keeping up with all of the new data is a real challenge given the sheer volume of information that becomes available on a daily basis. The purpose of this book would be to provide a comprehensive review of breast cancer epidemiology, covering the topics of disease burden, etiology, risk factors, prevention, early detection/screening, treatment, and outcomes. The book would be a single comprehensive source of the most recent information on breast cancer epidemiology, and it would serve as a valuable resource for breast cancer researchers across disciplines regardless of what stage of their career they are in. To the knowledge of the editor, no such resource is currently available.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Li, Christopher

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Foreword;6
2;Contents;8
3;Contributors;10
4;1 Global Burden of Breast Cancer;13
4.1;Introduction;13
4.2;Measurements of Cancer Burden;13
4.3;Sources of Cancer Incidence and Mortality Data;14
4.4;Geographical Burden and Variations Worldwide;15
4.5;Age-Specific Variations in Incidence of Breast Cancer;19
4.6;Trends in Incidence and Mortality;20
4.7;Trends in Developed Countries;20
4.7.1;Europe;20
4.7.2;North America;23
4.7.3;Other Developed Countries;24
4.7.4;Explanations for Reductions in Breast Cancer Mortality Rates in Developed Countries;24
4.8;Trends in Developing Countries;25
4.8.1;Asia;26
4.8.2;Africa;27
4.8.3;Latin America;27
4.9;Conclusion;28
4.10;References;29
5;2 Breast Cancer Biology and Clinical Characteristics;32
5.1;Introduction;32
5.2;Tumor Classification Schemes;32
5.2.1;Patient Characteristics;32
5.2.1.1;Age at Diagnosis/Menopausal Status;33
5.2.1.2;Family History of Breast Cancer;34
5.2.2;Tumor Characteristics;35
5.2.2.1;Clinical Characteristics;35
5.2.2.1.1;Stage;35
5.2.2.1.2;Grade;37
5.2.2.1.3;Histology;38
5.2.2.2;Molecular/Genetic Profile;40
5.2.2.2.1;Estrogen Receptor (ER) Status;41
5.2.2.2.2;Molecular Subtypes of Breast Cancer;42
5.3;Origins of Breast Cancer Subtypes;45
5.4;Conclusions;49
5.5;References;49
6;3 In situ Breast Cancer;58
6.1;Introduction;58
6.2;Incidence Trends;58
6.3;Natural History;61
6.3.1;Biological Markers;61
6.3.2;Survival and Recurrence;62
6.3.3;Prognostic Factors;64
6.3.4;Concern with Overtreatment;64
6.3.5;Summary;65
6.4;Risk Factors;65
6.4.1;Menstrual and Reproductive Factors;66
6.4.1.1;Age at Menarche;66
6.4.1.2;Age at Menopause;66
6.4.1.3;Age at First Birth;69
6.4.1.4;Parity;69
6.4.1.5;Lactation;69
6.4.2;Lifestyle Factors;70
6.4.2.1;Body Size;70
6.4.2.2;Physical Activity;71
6.4.2.3;Alcohol;71
6.4.2.4;Smoking;71
6.4.2.5;Postmenopausal Hormones;72
6.4.2.6;Oral Contraceptives;72
6.4.2.7;Diet;72
6.4.3;Genetics, Personal, and Family History of Breast Disease;73
6.4.3.1;BRCA1/2;73
6.4.3.2;Genetic Polymorphisms;73
6.4.3.3;Benign Breast Disease;74
6.4.3.4;Family History;74
6.4.4;Biomarkers of Risk;74
6.4.4.1;Endogenous Hormones;74
6.4.4.2;Mammographic Breast Density;75
6.4.5;Environmental Pollution;75
6.4.6;Summary of BCIS Risk Factors;75
6.5;Conclusion;76
6.6;References;76
7;4 Endogenous Hormones;84
7.1;Introduction;84
7.2;Estrogens;84
7.3;Androgens;89
7.4;Progesterone;90
7.5;Prolactin;91
7.6;Insulin-Like Growth Factors;92
7.7;Summary;95
7.8;References;95
8;5 Exogenous Hormones;99
8.1;Introduction;99
8.2;Menopausal Hormone Therapy;99
8.2.1;Patterns of Use;99
8.2.2;Types of Estrogen and Progesterone Used;100
8.2.3;Observational Studies of the Relationship Between HT Use and Breast Cancer Risk;101
8.2.4;Women’s Health Initiative Randomized Trials of EHT and CHT;105
8.2.5;Understanding Differences in EHT Findings Across Studies;106
8.2.6;Relationship Between HT Use and Different Breast Cancer Subtypes;107
8.2.7;Clinical Implications;108
8.3;Oral Contraceptives;109
8.3.1;Epidemiologic Evidence Assessing Oral Contraceptive Use and Breast Cancer Risk;110
8.3.2;Age at Diagnosis, Timing of Oral Contraceptive Use, and Duration of Use;111
8.3.3;Oral Contraceptive Use According to Progestin and Estrogen Content;118
8.3.4;Oral Contraceptive Use and Risk of Breast Cancer by Tumor Characteristics;119
8.4;Injectable Contraceptives;120
8.5;Newer Forms of Hormonal Contraceptives and Patterns of Use;121
8.6;Summary;123
8.7;References;123
9;6 Reproductive Factors;128
9.1;Introduction;128
9.2;Reproductive Factors;128
9.2.1;Age at Menarche and Menopause;128
9.2.2;Childbearing;129
9.2.2.1;Parity;129
9.2.2.2;Age at First Birth;130
9.2.2.3;Age at Subsequent Births and Birth Spacing;131
9.2.2.4;Pregnancy Interruption: Induced and Spontaneous Abortions;131
9.2.2.5;Breast-Feeding;132
9.2.3;Reproductive Factors and Risk of Different Subtypes of Breast Cancer;132
9.3;Postulated Biological Mechanisms Underlying the Observed Relationships Between Reproductive Factors and Breast Cancer Risk;133
9.4;Pregnancy Characteristics and Breast Cancer Risk;134
9.4.1;Birth Weight;134
9.4.2;Placental Weight;135
9.4.3;Preterm Birth;135
9.4.4;Preeclampsia and/or Pregnancy-Related Hypertension;135
9.4.5;Gender of Offspring;136
9.4.6;Multiple Births;136
9.4.7;Implications for Prevention;137
9.5;Summary;138
9.6;References;138
10;7 Physical Activity and Anthropometric Factors;145
10.1;Introduction;145
10.2;Physical Activity;145
10.3;Anthropometric Factors and Breast Cancer Risk;148
10.3.1;Body Mass Index;149
10.3.2;Weight Change;150
10.3.3;Waist-Hip Ratio;151
10.3.4;Height;152
10.4;Biological Mechanisms;153
10.5;Conclusions;155
10.6;References;156
11;8 Diet and Nutrition;160
11.1;Introduction;160
11.2;Dietary Fat;161
11.3;Dietary Carbohydrates;163
11.4;Dietary Fiber;166
11.5;Alcohol;166
11.6;Vitamins A, C, and E;167
11.7;Folate, Vitamin B6, and Vitamin B12;169
11.8;Vitamin D and Calcium;171
11.9;Selenium;174
11.10;Coffee and Tea;174
11.11;Soy and Phytoestrogens;175
11.12;Dietary Patterns and Foods;175
11.13;Conclusions;176
11.14;References;177
12;9 Environmental and Occupational Exposures;189
12.1;Introduction;189
12.2;Ionizing Radiation;189
12.2.1;Japanese Atomic Bomb Survivors;190
12.2.2;Medical Exposures;190
12.2.3;Occupational Exposures;193
12.2.4;Conclusions;194
12.3;Environmental Pollutants;195
12.3.1;Organochlorines;195
12.3.1.1;Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs);198
12.3.1.2;Dichloro-diphenyl-trichloroethane (DDT) and Dichloro-diphenyl-dichloroethane (DDE);203
12.3.2;Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs);207
12.3.3;Dioxins;209
12.3.4;Bisphenol A (BPA);210
12.3.5;Conclusions;211
12.4;Extremely Low-Frequency (ELF) Magnetic Fields;212
12.4.1;Residential ELF Magnetic Field Exposure and Breast Cancer;212
12.4.2;Occupational ELF Magnetic Field Exposure and Breast Cancer;214
12.4.3;Conclusions;216
12.5;Trace Elements and Heavy Metals;216
12.6;Conclusions;217
12.7;References;218
13;10 Shift Work and Circadian Disruption;228
13.1;Introduction;228
13.2;Epidemiological Evidence: Breast Cancer and Night Shift Work;229
13.3;Epidemiological Evidence: Breast Cancer and Light-at-Night Exposure;233
13.4;Possible Biological Mechanisms;234
13.4.1;The Pineal Gland and Actions of Melatonin;234
13.4.2;Melatonin as a Regulator of Gonadal Function;234
13.4.3;Melatonin as a Direct Oncostatic Agent;235
13.4.4;Light-at-Night Exposure and Breast Cancer in Laboratory Animals;236
13.4.5;Light-at-Night Exposure and Melatonin Levels in Humans;237
13.4.6;Effects of Night Shift Work on Sleep;237
13.5;Night Shift Work and Breast Cancer Risk: Potential Role of Genetics;238
13.6;Summary and Future Directions;239
13.7;References;239
14;11 Non-Hormonal Medications and Chronic Diseases;247
14.1;Introduction;247
14.2;Statins;247
14.3;Non-steroidal Anti-inflammatory Drugs;248
14.4;Hypertension and Antihypertensive Therapy;249
14.5;Antidepressants and Depression;250
14.6;Retinoids;251
14.7;Antibiotics;251
14.8;Diabetes Mellitus Type 2;252
14.9;Autoimmune Diseases;253
14.9.1;Rheumatoid Arthritis and Systemic Lupus Erythematosus;253
14.9.2;Multiple Sclerosis;255
14.9.3;Primary Biliary Cirrhosis;255
14.10;Thyroid Diseases;256
14.11;Conclusion;256
14.12;References;259
15;12 Male Breast Cancer;265
15.1;Introduction;265
15.2;Geographic Variation in Incidence;266
15.3;Laterality of Disease;266
15.4;Genetics;267
15.4.1;BRCA1/2;267
15.5;Other High-Penetrance Genes;268
15.6;Low-Penetrance Genes;268
15.6.1;CHEK2;268
15.6.2;Androgen Receptor Gene;269
15.6.3;CYP17 Gene;269
15.7;Klinefelter’s Syndrome;270
15.8;Gynecomastia;270
15.9;Occupation;270
15.10;Endocrine Risk Factors;271
15.11;Prolactin;274
15.12;Diet;274
15.13;Alcohol;274
15.14;Ionizing Radiation;275
15.15;Conclusions;275
15.16;References;276
16;13 Inherited Predisposition: Familial Aggregation and High Risk Genes;281
16.1;Introduction;281
16.2;Familial Aggregation of Breast Cancer;281
16.2.1;Family History of Breast Cancer;281
16.2.2;Family History of Breast Cancer and Interaction with Other Factors;283
16.3;BRCA1 and BRCA2 Genes;284
16.3.1;Discovery of BRCA1 and BRCA2;284
16.3.2;Biology and Function of BRCA1 and BRCA2;285
16.3.3;Prevalence and Predictors of BRCA1/BRCA2 Mutations;285
16.3.4;Founder Effects and Race-Specific Results;287
16.3.5;Penetrance Estimates;288
16.3.6;Variants of Unknown Significance;288
16.3.7;Gene-Environment Interaction Studies of BRCA1 and BRCA2;289
16.3.8;Prevention, Treatment, and Outcomes in Mutation Carriers;292
16.3.8.1;Tumor Features of BRCA1- and BRCA2-Associated Breast Cancers;292
16.3.8.2;Prevention of First Primary Breast Cancer;292
16.3.8.3;Breast Cancer Treatments for BRCA1 and BRCA2 Mutation Carriers;292
16.3.8.4;Ipsilateral and Contralateral Breast Cancer;293
16.3.8.5;Breast Cancer Mortality;293
16.4;Remaining Unexplained Heritable Component;294
16.5;Summary;295
16.6;References;296
17;14 Common Genetic Susceptibility Loci;304
17.1;Introduction;304
17.2;The Search for Common Susceptibility Variants;305
17.3;Commmon susceptibility variants;307
17.3.1;Heterogeneity in Risk of Common Susceptibility Variants;310
17.3.2;Functional Insight into Susceptibility;312
17.4;Polygenic Architecture of Susceptibility;313
17.4.1;What Does Polygenic Imply?;313
17.4.2;Combined Effect of Susceptibility Loci;314
17.4.3;Population Distribution of Genetic Risk;317
17.5;Future;319
17.6;Bibliography;320
18;15 Mammographic Density as a Potential Surrogate Marker for Breast Cancer;324
18.1;Introduction;324
18.2;Mammographic Density and Breast Cancer Risk;326
18.3;Mammographic Density and Breast Tissue Composition;327
18.4;Age, Mammographic Density, and the Incidence of Breast Cancer;327
18.5;Factors Associated with Variation and Change in Mammographic Density;329
18.5.1;Breast Cancer Risk Factors;329
18.5.1.1;Parity;329
18.5.1.2;Menopause;329
18.5.1.3;Body Mass Index;330
18.5.1.4;Family History;332
18.5.1.5;Race/Ethnicity;332
18.5.1.6;Endogenous Hormones and Growth Factors;332
18.5.1.7;Exogenous Hormones;333
18.6;Change in Mammographic Density and Breast Cancer Risk;336
18.7;Mammographic Density as a Potential Surrogate Marker of Breast Cancer;337
18.8;Summary;340
18.9;References;341
19;16 Breast Cancer Screening;345
19.1;Introduction;345
19.2;Goal of Screening;345
19.3;Efficacy and Accuracy of Screening Mammography;346
19.3.1;Efficacy by Age;346
19.3.1.1;Women Aged 40-49 Years;346
19.3.1.2;Women Aged 50-69 Years;348
19.3.1.3;Women Aged 70 Years and Older;349
19.3.2;Efficacy According to Length of Screening Interval and Whether CBE is Performed;350
19.3.2.1;Screening Interval;350
19.3.2.2;Clinical Breast Exam;350
19.3.3;Efficacy According to Family History of Breast Cancer;351
19.3.4;Efficacy According to Menopausal Status or Postmenopausal Hormone Therapy;351
19.3.5;Accuracy of Screening Mammography;352
19.3.5.1;Film Screening Mammography;352
19.3.5.2;Digital Screen Mammography;354
19.4;Harms and Limitations of Screening Mammography;354
19.4.1;Diagnostic Evaluations and Associated Morbidity and Anxiety;354
19.4.2;Increased Detection of Ductal Carcinoma In Situ (DCIS);356
19.4.3;False Reassurance;357
19.5;Mammography Facilities;358
19.6;Interpreting Mammographic Results;358
19.7;Efficacy and Accuracy of Clinical Breast Exam;359
19.8;Efficacy and Accuracy of Breast Self-Exam (BSE);360
19.9;Accuracy of MRI;361
19.10;Breast Cancer Screening Recommendations;362
19.11;Informed Decision Making for Screening;364
19.12;Future Directions;364
19.13;Summary;365
19.14;References;365
20;17 Principles of Breast Cancer Therapy;372
20.1;Introduction;372
20.2;Prognostic and Predictive Factors;372
20.3;Loco-regional Therapy for Early-Stage Breast Cancer;374
20.4;Determinants of Systemic Therapy for Early Breast Cancer;376
20.5;Adjuvant Endocrine Therapy;377
20.6;Adjuvant Chemotherapy;379
20.7;Adjuvant Biologic Therapy;380
20.8;Principles of Treating Metastatic Breast Cancer;381
20.9;Endocrine Therapy for Metastatic Breast Cancer;382
20.10;Chemotherapy for Metastatic Breast Cancer;383
20.11;Biologic and Other Systemic Therapies for Metastatic Breast Cancer;384
20.12;Summary;385
20.13;References;385
21;18 Breast Cancer Outcomes;390
21.1;Introduction;390
21.2;Survival;390
21.3;Rates of Recurrence;393
21.4;Modifiers of Risk of Mortality, Recurrence, and Second Primary Breast Cancer;394
21.4.1;Diet;394
21.4.2;Weight Control;395
21.4.3;Physical Activity;396
21.5;Quality of Life;398
21.5.1;Emotional Well-Being;398
21.5.2;Fatigue;398
21.5.3;Physical Health;399
21.6;Summary;399
21.7;References;400
22;Index;403