Li / Zhang Light-Emitting Diodes

Materials, Processes, Devices and Applications
1. Auflage 2019
ISBN: 978-3-319-99211-2
Verlag: Springer International Publishing
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, Band 4, 601 Seiten

Reihe: Solid State Lighting Technology and Application Series

Comprehensive in scope, this book covers the latest progresses of theories, technologies and applications of LEDs based on III-V semiconductor materials, such as basic material physics, key device issues (homoepitaxy and heteroepitaxy of the materials on different substrates, quantum efficiency and novel structures, and more), packaging, and system integration. The authors describe the latest developments of LEDs with spectra coverage from ultra-violet (UV) to the entire visible light wavelength. The major aspects of LEDs, such as material growth, chip structure, packaging, and reliability are covered, as well as emerging and novel applications beyond the general and conventional lightings. This book, written by leading authorities in the field, is indispensable reading for researchers and students working with semiconductors, optoelectronics, and optics.        Addresses novel LED applications such as LEDs for healthcare and wellbeing, horticulture, and animal breeding;
        Editor and chapter authors are global leading experts from the scientific and industry communities, and their latest research findings and achievements are included;
        Foreword by Hiroshi Amano, one of the 2014 winners of the Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on light-emitting diodes.

Professor Jinmin Li is Director of Solid State Lighting R&D at the Center of Chinese Academy of Sciences, and the Director of the State Key Laboratory for Solid State Lighting.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Li, Jinmin

Zhang, G. Q.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Foreword;6
2;Contents;7
3;1 GaN Substrate Material for III–V SemiconductorEpitaxy Growth;9
3.1;1.1 Introduction;9
3.1.1;1.1.1 Importance of GaN Substrates;10
3.1.2;1.1.2 Key Drivers for GaN Substrate Commercialization Success;12
3.2;1.2 The Technical Routes for GaN Substrate Materials;13
3.2.1;1.2.1 Native GaN Substrates;13
3.2.2;1.2.2 GaN Liftoff Substrate Wafers;15
3.2.3;1.2.3 GaN Templates;15
3.3;1.3 Major Methods for the Growth of GaN Substrate;16
3.3.1;1.3.1 The Liquid-Phase Growth;17
3.3.1.1;1.3.1.1 High-Pressure Nitrogen Solution Growth (HPNSG);17
3.3.1.2;1.3.1.2 Ammonothermal Growth;18
3.3.1.3;1.3.1.3 Na-Flux Method;20
3.3.2;1.3.2 Gas-Phase Growth for GaN Substrates;24
3.3.2.1;1.3.2.1 Gas-Phase Transport Method;24
3.3.2.2;1.3.2.2 Hydride Vapor-Phase Epitaxy (HVPE);25
3.4;1.4 HVPE for GaN Substrate Materials;26
3.4.1;1.4.1 Chemical Reaction in the Growth of GaN by Hydride Vapor-Phase Epitaxy;26
3.4.2;1.4.2 Hydride Gas-Phase Epitaxial Growth System;28
3.4.3;1.4.3 The Growth and Doping of HVPE Nitrides;29
3.4.4;1.4.4 The Main Difficulties of HVPE;32
3.4.5;1.4.5 Epitaxial Lateral Overgrowth by HVPE;33
3.4.6;1.4.6 Freestanding HVPE-GaN Substrate;35
3.4.6.1;1.4.6.1 Laser Liftoff Process;36
3.4.6.2;1.4.6.2 Self-Separation Methods;38
3.4.7;1.4.7 Current Development Trend in HVPE-GaN Substrate Materials;39
3.4.7.1;1.4.7.1 Combined GaN Crystal Growth;40
3.4.7.2;1.4.7.2 GaN Boule by HVPE Technology;42
3.4.7.3;1.4.7.3 Nonpolar GaN Substrate;44
3.4.7.4;1.4.7.4 Low-Cost HVPE-GaN Templates on Sapphire;45
3.5;1.5 Summary;45
3.6;References;46
4;2 SiC Single Crystal Growth and Substrate Processing;48
4.1;2.1 Introduction for SiC Single Crystal Materials;48
4.1.1;2.1.1 Vapor Growth Method;49
4.1.2;2.1.2 Solution Growth Method;51
4.1.3;2.1.3 High-Temperature Chemical Vapor Deposition (HTCVD) Method;52
4.2;2.2 Structure and Physical Properties of SiC;53
4.3;2.3 SiC Single Crystal Growth by PVT Method;55
4.4;2.4 The Formation and Control of Structural Defects in SiC Single Crystals;62
4.4.1;2.4.1 Micropipe Defects;62
4.4.2;2.4.2 Foreign Polytypes;69
4.4.3;2.4.3 Dislocations;72
4.5;2.5 Control of Electrical Characters of SiC Crystals Grown by Sublimation Growth;75
4.5.1;2.5.1 n-Type Doping;76
4.5.2;2.5.2 p-Type Doping;80
4.5.3;2.5.3 Semi-insulating;83
4.6;2.6 Processing of Large-Diameter SiC Wafers;89
4.6.1;2.6.1 Crystal Boule Slicing;91
4.6.2;2.6.2 Lapping;91
4.6.3;2.6.3 Mechanical Polishing;92
4.6.4;2.6.4 Chemo-mechanical Polishing;93
4.7;References;97
5;3 Homoepitaxy of GaN Light-Emitting Diodes;100
5.1;3.1 Bulk GaN Substrates for Light-Emitting Devices;100
5.1.1;3.1.1 Growth Mechanism of HVPE System;101
5.1.2;3.1.2 Progress in HVPE Growth of GaN Substrate;102
5.1.2.1;3.1.2.1 Dislocation Reduction and Strain Control;102
5.1.2.2;3.1.2.2 Si-Doping for n-GaN Substrate;104
5.1.2.3;3.1.2.3 Fe-Doping for High-Resistivity GaN Substrate;105
5.1.2.4;3.1.2.4 Minority Diffusion Lengths in Bulk GaN;106
5.2;3.2 Structural Characterization in Homoepitaxial GaInN/GaN Light-Emitting Diode Growth;108
5.2.1;3.2.1 Evaluation of Threading Dislocation Density;112
5.2.2;3.2.2 Electrical Characterization and Optical Characterization of Homoepitaxial InGaN/GaN Light-Emitting Diodes;116
5.3;3.3 Nonpolar and Semipolar Orientations GaN LED Grown on Bulk GaN Substrates;120
5.3.1;3.3.1 Problems with Conventional c-Plane LEDs and Motivation for Nonpolar and Semipolar Orientations;120
5.3.2;3.3.2 Crystallography and Piezoelectricity;122
5.3.3;3.3.3 Performance of Nonpolar and Semipolar-Oriented LEDs Using Homoepitaxial Substrates;124
5.4;3.4 Efficiency Droop and Efficiency Enhancement of Homoepitaxial InGaN/GaN Light-Emitting Diodes;125
5.5;3.5 Light Efficiency Extraction;127
5.5.1;3.5.1 Surface Treatment Methods;128
5.5.2;3.5.2 Chip Shaping Method;129
5.5.3;3.5.3 Photonic Crystal Method;131
5.6;References;134
6;4 GaN LEDs on Si Substrate;140
6.1;4.1 Epitaxy of GaN LED on Si Substrate;140
6.1.1;4.1.1 Overview of GaN Epitaxy on Si;140
6.1.2;4.1.2 Buffer Technology;142
6.1.2.1;4.1.2.1 Thin AlN Buffer on Grid-Patterned Si Substrate;142
6.1.2.2;4.1.2.2 Graded AlGaN Buffer on Bare Si Substrate;149
6.1.3;4.1.3 Quantum Well Strain Engineering;155
6.1.4;4.1.4 V-Pits of GaN LED;157
6.2;4.2 Device Processing of GaN LEDs on Si Substrate;162
6.2.1;4.2.1 Reflective P-Type Ohmic Contact;163
6.2.2;4.2.2 Complementary Contact;164
6.2.3;4.2.3 Film Transferring of GaN to New Substrate;165
6.2.4;4.2.4 Surface Roughening of N-Polar N-Type GaN;166
6.2.5;4.2.5 Ohmic Contact on N-Polar N-GaN;168
6.2.6;4.2.6 Device Passivation;169
6.3;4.3 Device Characterization of Vertical Thin Film LEDs Based on GaN/Si Technology;169
6.4;References;174
7;5 The AlGaInP/AlGaAs Material System and Red/Yellow LED;178
7.1;5.1 AlGaInP/AlGaAs Material System Lattice and Bandgap Energy;178
7.2;5.2 AlGaInP/AlGaAs Material Epitaxy by MOCVD;180
7.3;5.3 AlGaInP/AlGaAs LED Structure Design and Manufacture;182
7.3.1;5.3.1 Bragg Reflector and Textured Chip Surfaces;182
7.3.2;5.3.2 Transparent Substrate;186
7.3.3;5.3.3 Thin-Film Structure;188
7.3.4;5.3.4 Flip-Chip Structure;192
7.4;5.4 AlGaInP/AlGaAs Red/Yellow LED Application in Solid-State Lighting, Display, and Communication;192
7.4.1;5.4.1 Application in Solid-State Lighting;192
7.4.2;5.4.2 Application in Display;197
7.4.3;5.4.3 Application in Communication;198
7.5;5.5 III-Nitrides Red/Yellow LED;201
7.5.1;5.5.1 GaN-Based Yellow Light-Emitting Diodes;201
7.5.2;5.5.2 Progress on GaN-Based Yellow LED;202
7.5.3;5.5.3 Substrate Technique;205
7.6;References;206
8;6 The InGaN Material System and Blue/Green Emitters;210
8.1;6.1 Blue LEDs;210
8.1.1;6.1.1 Buffer Layer for the Growth of GaN and Growth of High-Quality GaN Materials;210
8.1.2;6.1.2 New Buffer Layer for High-Quality GaN Materials;215
8.1.3;6.1.3 Design and Growth of High-Efficiency Blue LEDs;218
8.1.4;6.1.4 Device of High-Efficiency InGaN/GaN LEDs;222
8.1.4.1;6.1.4.1 InGaN/GaN Lateral LED;222
8.1.4.2;6.1.4.2 InGaN/GaN Flip-Chip LED;224
8.1.4.3;6.1.4.3 InGaN/GaN Vertical Structure LED;226
8.1.5;6.1.5 Tendency of Novel LEDs Structure and Application;228
8.1.5.1;6.1.5.1 Synthesis;228
8.1.5.2;6.1.5.2 Nanowire LED;230
8.2;6.2 Green LEDs;231
8.2.1;6.2.1 Polarization Fields in the InGaN-Based LEDs;231
8.2.2;6.2.2 Internal Quantum Efficiency Promotion in the Green LEDs;233
8.2.3;6.2.3 Light Extraction;240
8.3;References;242
9;7 Al-Rich III-Nitride Materials and UltravioletLight-Emitting Diodes;251
9.1;7.1 Heteroepitaxy of AlN Material by MOVPE;251
9.1.1;7.1.1 Al Precursor-Related Pre-reaction Issues in AlN MOVPE;251
9.1.1.1;7.1.1.1 Reaction Mechanism (Thermodynamics and Kinetics);252
9.1.1.2;7.1.1.2 The Initial Process of Adduct Reactions;253
9.1.1.3;7.1.1.3 The Adduct Reactions as the Functions of Temperature;254
9.1.1.4;7.1.1.4 The Surface Reaction of the Adducts;255
9.1.1.5;7.1.1.5 The Decomposition Processes of the TMAl;256
9.1.1.6;7.1.1.6 Approaches to Reduce the Parasitic Reactions;258
9.1.2;7.1.2 Defects and Stress Control of AlN Epitaxy on Sapphire;260
9.1.2.1;7.1.2.1 Epitaxial Lateral Overgrowth;261
9.1.2.2;7.1.2.2 Buffer-Assisted Technique;262
9.1.2.3;7.1.2.3 Interlayers;263
9.1.2.4;7.1.2.4 Special Growth Process Control;264
9.2;7.2 Structural Design for Efficient DUV LEDs;265
9.2.1;7.2.1 AlN and High Al Component AlGaN Epitaxy Technology;266
9.2.2;7.2.2 Study on N-Type Doping of AlGaN Materials;266
9.2.3;7.2.3 Study on P-Type Doping of AlGaN Materials;266
9.2.4;7.2.4 Quantum Efficiency Study of UV LED Structure;267
9.3;7.3 Homoepitaxy of DUV LEDs on AlN Substrate;268
9.3.1;7.3.1 Homoepitaxy on AlN Substrates;268
9.3.2;7.3.2 Pseudomorphic AlGaN on AlN Substrates;270
9.3.3;7.3.3 Pseudomorphic DUV LEDs on AlN Substrates;271
9.3.4;7.3.4 Light Extraction Efficiency for Pseudomorphic DUV LEDs on AlN Substrates;272
9.4;7.4 Light Exaction Issues of DUV LEDs;274
9.4.1;7.4.1 Al-Rich-Induced Optical Polarization Effect in DUV LEDs;274
9.4.2;7.4.2 Surface Patterning and High Reflective Techniques for DUV LEDs;276
9.4.2.1;7.4.2.1 Surface Patterning;276
9.4.2.2;7.4.2.2 High Reflective Techniques;278
9.5;References;278
10;8 Technology and Droop Study for High InternalQuantum Efficiency;286
10.1;8.1 Introduction;286
10.2;8.2 Techniques for High Internal Quantum Efficiency;287
10.3;8.3 Characterization for Internal Quantum Efficiency;300
10.4;8.4 Origins of Efficiency Droop;304
10.5;8.5 Some Remedies to Alleviate the Efficiency Droop;307
10.6;8.6 Summary;311
10.7;References;311
11;9 On the Light Extraction Efficiency for III-Nitride-Based Light-Emitting Diodes;316
11.1;9.1 Introduction;316
11.2;9.2 Chip Structure Engineering;317
11.3;9.3 Engineering the Optical Reflections;318
11.4;9.4 Micro-/Nanostructure Engineering;322
11.4.1;9.4.1 Surface Texturing;323
11.4.2;9.4.2 Photonic Crystal;326
11.4.3;9.4.3 Patterned Substrate;329
11.5;9.5 Surface Plasmon-Enhanced LEDs;333
11.6;9.6 Summary;335
11.7;References;337
12;10 Enhancing Wall-Plug Efficiency for Deep-UV Light-Emitting Diodes: From Crystal Growth to Devices;341
12.1;10.1 Introduction;341
12.2;10.2 UV-LED Efficiency Components;342
12.2.1;10.2.1 Internal Quantum Efficiency (IQE);343
12.2.1.1;10.2.1.1 Threading Dislocations;345
12.2.1.2;10.2.1.2 Quantum-Confined Stark Effect (QCSE);346
12.2.2;10.2.2 Injection Efficiency (INJ) and Wall-Plug Efficiency (WPE);347
12.2.3;10.2.3 Light Extraction Efficiency (LEE);348
12.3;10.3 Deep-UV Photon Emission from Extreme Quantum-Confined GaN/AlN Heterostructures;350
12.3.1;10.3.1 Motivation of Using GaN Instead of AlGaN;350
12.3.2;10.3.2 Evolution of Band Structure of Ultrathin AlN/GaN/AlN Heterostructures;351
12.3.3;10.3.3 Achievable Wavelengths and Inhomogeneous Broadening: Theory vs Experiment;353
12.4;10.4 MBE Growth of GaN/AlN Quantum Structures (Wells and Dots) for Enhanced IQE;357
12.4.1;10.4.1 MBE System in Brief;357
12.4.1.1;10.4.1.1 Basic MBE Structure;358
12.4.1.2;10.4.1.2 In Situ Characterization of Growth: Use of RHEED;359
12.4.1.3;10.4.1.3 MBE Growth Modes;361
12.4.1.4;10.4.1.4 MBE Growth Condition Markers;361
12.4.2;10.4.2 MBE Growth of GaN/AlN Quantum Heterostructures;364
12.4.2.1;10.4.2.1 Quantum Wells/Quantum Dots/Disks;364
12.4.2.2;10.4.2.2 MBE Growth Parameter Optimization;366
12.4.2.3;10.4.2.3 Single and Double Monolayer ?-GaN Quantum Wells;368
12.4.2.4;10.4.2.4 IQE Improvement with ?-GaN Quantum Disks;370
12.5;10.5 Polarization Doping-Assisted Deep-UV LEDs with GaN/AlN Quantum Structures: Enhanced Carrier Injection;378
12.5.1;10.5.1 Polarization-Induced Doping to Enhance Vertical Electrical Conductivity for LEDs;378
12.5.2;10.5.2 Structural Design of Deep-UV LEDs with Polarization-Induced Doping;380
12.5.3;10.5.3 Tunable Deep-UV Emission over 232–270 nm;381
12.5.4;10.5.4 Cryogenic Operation of a Deep-UV LED;385
12.6;10.6 Enhancement of Light Extraction with Ultrathin GaN/AlN Quantum Heterostructure Deep-UV LEDs;391
12.7;10.7 Conclusion;394
12.8;References;394
13;11 Reliability of Ultraviolet Light-Emitting Diodes;400
13.1;11.1 AlGaN-Based Ultraviolet Light-Emitting Diodes;400
13.2;11.2 InGaN-Based Ultraviolet Light-Emitting Diodes;415
13.3;11.3 Reliability of Packages for Ultraviolet Light-Emitting Diodes;417
13.4;11.4 Summary;423
13.5;References;423
14;12 Nitride Nanowires for Light Emitting Diodes;428
14.1;12.1 Introduction;428
14.2;12.2 NW Growth for LEDs;432
14.2.1;12.2.1 Spontaneous Growth of GaN NWs by MBE;432
14.2.1.1;12.2.1.1 Growth Conditions;432
14.2.1.2;12.2.1.2 Growth Mechanisms Involved in MBE Growth;433
14.2.1.3;12.2.1.3 Selective Area Growth of GaN NWs in MBE;435
14.2.1.4;12.2.1.4 Axial Growth of Heterostructures;436
14.2.2;12.2.2 MOVPE Growth of Catalyst-free Nitride NWs;437
14.2.2.1;12.2.2.1 Methods and Growth Conditions;437
14.2.2.2;12.2.2.2 Growth Mechanisms Involved in MOVPE NW Formation;440
14.2.2.3;12.2.2.3 NW Growth by Selective Area Growth in MOVPE;441
14.2.2.4;12.2.2.4 Radial Growth of Heterostructures;441
14.2.3;12.2.3 Comparison of Catalyst-free Growth Method of Nitride NWs;442
14.3;12.3 NW LED Fabrication;442
14.4;12.4 Early Demonstrations of Nitride NW LEDs;444
14.5;12.5 NW LEDs With Emission Color in the Visible Spectral Range;446
14.5.1;12.5.1 MOVPE-grown NW LEDs;447
14.5.2;12.5.2 MBE-grown NW LEDs;452
14.5.3;12.5.3 White NW LEDs;456
14.5.3.1;12.5.3.1 Phosphor Converted White LEDs;457
14.5.3.2;12.5.3.2 Phosphor-free White LEDs by RGB Color Mixing;457
14.6;12.6 Ultraviolet NW LEDs;460
14.7;12.7 Operation Speed of NW LEDs;461
14.8;12.8 NW Photonic Platforms;463
14.9;12.9 Open Issues of NW LEDs;465
14.9.1;12.9.1 Low IQE Values;465
14.9.2;12.9.2 Reabsorption in Core/Shell LEDs;466
14.9.3;12.9.3 Low EQE Values;467
14.9.4;12.9.4 Wavelength Control;467
14.9.5;12.9.5 Electrical Injection Inhomogeneities;469
14.9.5.1;12.9.5.1 Intra-wire Injection Inhomogeneities;469
14.9.5.2;12.9.5.2 Wire-to-wire Injection Inhomogeneities;470
14.10;12.10 Flexible NW LEDs;471
14.10.1;12.10.1 Motivation;472
14.10.2;12.10.2 Fabrication Approaches;473
14.10.2.1;12.10.2.1 Direct Growth;473
14.10.2.2;12.10.2.2 In-plane Transfer;473
14.10.2.3;12.10.2.3 Vertical Transfer;474
14.11;12.11 Summary;476
14.12;References;477
15;13 Light-Emitting Diodes for Healthcare and Well-being;488
15.1;13.1 Basic Theories and Mechanisms of LED Phototherapy;488
15.1.1;13.1.1 Basic Theories and Mechanisms of Low-Level Light Therapy;488
15.1.1.1;13.1.1.1 Development History of LED for Low-Level Light Therapy;488
15.1.1.2;13.1.1.2 Interactivity Between Light and Human Tissues;489
15.1.1.3;13.1.1.3 Light Dosiology for LED Used in Low-Level Light Therapy;490
15.1.1.4;13.1.1.4 Mechanisms of Low-Level Light Therapy;490
15.1.2;13.1.2 Basic Theories and Mechanisms of LED Mediated Photodynamic Therapy;493
15.1.2.1;13.1.2.1 Basic Theories of LED-Mediated Photodynamic Therapy;493
15.1.2.2;13.1.2.2 Mechanisms of LED-Mediated Photodynamic Therapy;495
15.2;13.2 Clinical Application of LED Light;497
15.2.1;13.2.1 LED Light in Low Level Light Therapy;497
15.2.1.1;13.2.1.1 Neonatal Jaundice;497
15.2.1.2;13.2.1.2 Emotion Cognitive Impairment;498
15.2.1.3;13.2.1.3 Wound Healing;498
15.2.1.4;13.2.1.4 Acne;499
15.2.1.5;13.2.1.5 Facial Rejuvenation;500
15.2.1.6;13.2.1.6 Scars;500
15.2.1.7;13.2.1.7 Motor Functions;501
15.2.1.8;13.2.1.8 Pains;501
15.2.2;13.2.2 Application of LED Light Sources in Photodynamic Therapy;502
15.2.2.1;13.2.2.1 Actinic Keratosis;502
15.2.2.2;13.2.2.2 Acne;502
15.2.2.3;13.2.2.3 Basal Cell Carcinoma;503
15.2.2.4;13.2.2.4 Oral Antibacterial Therapy;503
15.2.2.5;13.2.2.5 Bactericidal Treatment for Deep Caries;504
15.2.2.6;13.2.2.6 Periodontitis;505
15.2.2.7;13.2.2.7 Denture Stomatitis;505
15.3;13.3 LED Medical Equipment;506
15.3.1;13.3.1 Application of LED Equipment in Medical Field;506
15.3.1.1;13.3.1.1 Lighting;506
15.3.1.2;13.3.1.2 Disinfection and Sterilization;506
15.3.1.3;13.3.1.3 Phototherapy;506
15.3.2;13.3.2 LED Phototherapy Device;507
15.3.2.1;13.3.2.1 Low-Level Light Therapy (LLLT) Devices;507
15.3.2.2;13.3.2.2 LED Photodynamic Therapeutic Devices;510
15.4;References;511
16;14 Light-Emitting Diodes for Horticulture;515
16.1;14.1 Fundamentals and Challenges of LED Lighting Technology for Horticulture;515
16.1.1;14.1.1 Role of Light and Major Light Environmental Factors;516
16.1.2;14.1.2 Dry Mass Increase and Value-Addition of Plant by Lighting;516
16.1.3;14.1.3 Basic Properties of LEDs Necessary for Design and Operation of PFAL;517
16.1.4;14.1.4 Complexity of Light Environmental Control;519
16.1.4.1;14.1.4.1 Purpose of Environmental Control;519
16.1.4.2;14.1.4.2 Optimal PPFD as Affected by Other Environmental Factors;519
16.1.5;14.1.5 Challenges for Smart LED Lighting Systems;520
16.1.5.1;14.1.5.1 Starting Points;520
16.1.5.2;14.1.5.2 Basic Ideas;521
16.1.5.3;14.1.5.3 Simple Examples;521
16.1.5.4;14.1.5.4 Smart LED Lighting System;522
16.2;14.2 Case Study: LED Lighting for Lettuce Seedlings in PFAL;523
16.2.1;14.2.1 Plant Materials and Experiment Design;523
16.2.1.1;14.2.1.1 Plant Materials and Growth Conditions;523
16.2.1.2;14.2.1.2 Treatment and Experiment Design;525
16.2.1.3;14.2.1.3 Measurements for Lettuce Growth and Quality;525
16.2.2;14.2.2 Effect of Lighting Environment at Seedling Stage on Leaf Morphology and Growth of Lettuce Seedlings;526
16.2.3;14.2.3 Effects of PPFD and Photoperiod at Seedling Stage on Mature Lettuce Growth and Quality;529
16.2.4;14.2.4 Effects of PPFD, Photoperiod, and Light Quality at Seedling Stage on Mature Lettuce Growth and Quality;529
16.3;14.3 Case Study: LED Lighting for Hydroponic Lettuce in PFAL;534
16.3.1;14.3.1 Plant Materials and Experiment Design;534
16.3.1.1;14.3.1.1 Plant Materials and Growth Conditions;534
16.3.1.2;14.3.1.2 Treatment and Experiment Design;534
16.3.1.3;14.3.1.3 Growth Quality and Photosynthetic Measurements;535
16.3.2;14.3.2 LED Lighting Affects Growth of Hydroponic Lettuce;536
16.3.3;14.3.3 LED Lighting Affects Hydroponic Lettuce Quality;539
16.3.4;14.3.4 Continuous Photosynthesis and Light Responses of Hydroponic Lettuce;542
16.3.5;14.3.5 Energy Use Efficiency of Artificial Light for Lettuce Production;544
16.4;References;546
17;15 The Effect and Mechanism of Light on the Growth, Food Intake, and Gonad Development of Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar) Reared in RAS;550
17.1;15.1 Photoperiod Regulate Gonad Development via Kisspeptin/Kissr in Hypothalamus and Saccus Vasculosus of Salmo salar;550
17.1.1;15.1.1 Introduction;550
17.1.2;15.1.2 Materials and Methods;551
17.1.3;15.1.3 Results;552
17.1.3.1;15.1.3.1 The Location of Skissr and sGnRH3 in the Brain of Atlantic Salmon;552
17.1.3.2;15.1.3.2 Changes in Skissr in the Hyp and SV During Gonad Development;553
17.1.3.3;15.1.3.3 Changes in sGnRH3 in the Hyp and SV During Gonadal Development;554
17.2;15.2 Photoperiod May Regulate Growth via a Leptin Receptor in the Hypothalamus and Saccus Vasculosus of Salmo salar;555
17.2.1;15.2.1 Introduction;555
17.2.2;15.2.2 Materials and Methods;557
17.2.3;15.2.3 Results;558
17.2.3.1;15.2.3.1 Location of AsMR and AsLR in the Brain of Atlantic Salmon;558
17.2.3.2;15.2.3.2 Expression Pattern of AsMR in the Different Photoperiod in the Hypothalamus of Atlantic Salmon;559
17.2.3.3;15.2.3.3 Expression Pattern of AsLR in Different Photoperiods in the Hypothalamus and SV of Atlantic Salmon;561
17.3;15.3 The Effect and Mechanism of Light on the Growth, Food Intake, and Energy Budget of Abalone (Haliotis discus hannai Ino);562
17.3.1;15.3.1 Introduction;564
17.3.2;15.3.2 Materials and Methods;564
17.3.3;15.3.3 Results;568
17.3.3.1;15.3.3.1 Specific Growth Rate;568
17.3.3.2;15.3.3.2 Biochemical Composition;569
17.3.3.3;15.3.3.3 Determination of Energy Parameters;569
17.4;15.4 Effects of Light Quality and Photoperiod on the Growth and Energy Metabolism of H. discus hannai;572
17.4.1;15.4.1 Introduction;572
17.4.2;15.4.2 Materials and Methods;573
17.4.3;15.4.3 Results;576
17.4.3.1;15.4.3.1 Food Conversion Efficiency;576
17.4.3.2;15.4.3.2 Digestive Enzyme Activity;577
17.4.3.3;15.4.3.3 Antioxidant Enzyme Activity;577
17.5;References;581
18;Index;584