Mahalik Micromanufacturing and Nanotechnology

1. Auflage 2006
ISBN: 978-3-540-29339-2
Verlag: Springer Berlin Heidelberg
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 468 Seiten

Micromanufacturing and Nanotechnology is an emerging technological infrastructure and process that involves manufacturing of products and systems at the micro and nano scale levels. Development of micro and nano scale products and systems are underway due to the reason that they are faster, accurate and less expensive. Moreover, the basic functional units of such systems possesses remarkable mechanical, electronic and chemical properties compared to the macro-scale counterparts. Since this infrastructure has already become the prefered choice for the design and development of next generation products and systems it is now necessary to disseminate the conceptual and practical phenomenological know-how in a broader context. This book incorporates a selection of research and development papers. Its scope is the history and background, underlynig design methodology, application domains and recent developments.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Mahalik, Nitaigour P.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Preface;8
2;Contents;11
3;Authors;21
4;1 Introduction;24
4.1;1.1 Background;24
4.2;1.2 Introduction;25
4.2.1;1.2.1 Precision Engineering;25
4.2.2;1.2.2 Micromilling and Microdrilling;26
4.3;1.3 Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS);28
4.3.1;1.3.1 An Example: Microphenomenon in Electrophotography;29
4.4;1.4 Microelectronics Fabrication Methods;30
4.4.1;1.4.1 Bulk Micromachining;31
4.4.2;1.4.2 Surface Micromachining;31
4.5;1.5 Microinstrumentation;32
4.6;1.6 Micromechatronics;32
4.7;1.7 Nanofinishing;33
4.8;1.8 Optically Variable Device;33
4.9;1.9 MECS;34
4.10;1.10 Space Micropropulsion;34
4.11;1.11 e-Beam Nanolithography;35
4.12;1.12 Nanotechnology;35
4.13;1.13 Carbon Nanotubes and Structures;36
4.14;1.14 Molecular Logic Gates;37
4.15;1.15 Microdevices as Nanolevel Biosensors;38
4.16;1.16 Crosslinking in C60 and Derivatisation;39
4.17;1.17 Fuel Cell;40
4.18;1.18 References;40
5;2 Principles of MEMS and MOEMS;42
5.1;2.1 Introduction;42
5.2;2.2 Driving Principles for Actuation;43
5.3;2.3 Fabrication Process;44
5.4;2.4 Mechanical MEMS;46
5.4.1;2.4.1 Mechanical sensors;46
5.4.2;2.4.2 Accelerometer, Cantilever and Capacitive Measurement;47
5.4.3;2.4.3 Microphone;48
5.4.4;2.4.4 Gyroscope;49
5.4.5;2.4.5 Mechanical Actuators;49
5.5;2.5 Thermal MEMS;51
5.5.1;2.5.1 Thermometry;52
5.5.2;2.5.2 Data Storage Applications;53
5.5.3;2.5.3 Microhotplate Gas Sensors;53
5.5.4;2.5.4 Thermoactuators;54
5.6;2.6 Magnetic MEMS;54
5.7;2.7 MOEMS;58
5.8;2.8 Spatial Light Modulator;60
5.9;2.9 Digital Micromirror Device;61
5.10;2.10 Grating Light Valve (GLV);63
5.11;2.11 References;65
6;3 Laser Technology in Micromanufacturing;68
6.1;3.1. Introduction;68
6.2;3.2. Generation of Laser Light;68
6.3;3.3 Properties of Laser Light;72
6.3.1;3.3.1 Monochromacity;73
6.3.2;3.3.2 Directionality;73
6.3.3;3.3.3 Brightness;74
6.3.4;3.3.4 Coherence;74
6.3.5;3.3.5 Spatial Profile;74
6.3.6;3.3.6 Temporal Profile;75
6.4;3.4 Practical Lasers;75
6.5;3.5 Laser Technology in Micromanufacturing;77
6.5.1;3.5.1 Background;77
6.5.2;3.5.2 Absorption and Reflection of Laser Light;77
6.5.3;3.5.3 Application Technology Fundamentals;79
6.6;3.6 References;84
7;4 Soft Geometrical Error Compensation Methods Using Laser Interferometer;86
7.1;4.1 Introduction;86
7.2;4.2 Overview of Geometrical Error Calibration;87
7.2.1;4.2.1 Error Measurement System;89
7.2.2;4.2.2 Accuracy Assessment;90
7.3;4.3 Geometrical Error Compensation Schemes;91
7.3.1;4.3.1 Look-up Table for Geometrical Errors;92
7.3.2;4.3.2 Parametric Model for Geometrical Errors;93
7.4;4.4 Experimental Results;96
7.4.1;4.4.1 Error Approximations;97
7.4.2;4.4.2 Linear Errors;97
7.4.3;4.4.3 Straightness Errors;100
7.4.4;4.4.4 Angular Errors;100
7.4.5;4.4.5 Squareness Error;101
7.4.6;4.4.2 Assessment;102
7.5;4.5 Conclusions;102
7.6;4.6 Reference;104
8;5 Characterising Etching Processes in Bulk Micromachining;106
8.1;5.1 Introduction;106
8.2;5.2 Wet Bulk Micromachining (WBM);106
8.3;5.3 Review;107
8.4;5.4 Crystallography and its Effects;108
8.4.1;5.4.1 An Example;109
8.5;5.5 Silicon as Substrate and Structural Material;110
8.5.1;5.5.1 Silicon as a Substrate;110
8.5.2;5.5.2 Silicon as Structural Material;111
8.5.3;5.5.3 Stress and Strain;111
8.5.4;5.5.4 Thermal Properties of Silicon;115
8.6;5.6 Wet Etching Process;115
8.6.1;5.6.1 Isotropic Etchants;116
8.6.2;5.6.2 Reaction Phenomena;116
8.6.3;5.6.3 Isotropic Etch Curves;117
8.6.4;5.6.4 Masking;119
8.6.5;5.6.5 DD Etchants;120
8.7;5.7 Anisotropic Etching;120
8.7.1;5.7.1 Anisotropic Etchants;121
8.7.2;5.7.2 Masking for Anisotropic Etchants;121
8.8;5.8 Etching Control: The Etch-stop;122
8.8.1;5.8.1 Boron Diffusion Etch-stop;122
8.8.2;5.8.2 Electrochemical Etch-stop;123
8.8.3;5.8.3 Thin Films and SOI Etch-stop;124
8.9;5.9 Problems with Etching in Bulk Micromachining;125
8.9.1;5.9.1 RE Consumption;125
8.9.2;5.9.2 Corner Compensation;126
8.10;5.10 Conclusions;127
8.11;5.11 References;127
9;6 Features of Surface Micromachining and Wafer Bonding Process;130
9.1;6.1 Introduction;130
9.2;6.2 Photolithography;131
9.3;6.3 Surface Micromachining;134
9.3.1;6.3.1 Bulk versus Surface Micromachining;135
9.4;6.4 Characterising the Surface Micromachining Process;136
9.4.1;6.4.1 Isolation Layer;136
9.4.2;6.4.2 Sacrificial Layer;137
9.4.3;6.4.3 Structural Material;137
9.4.4;6.4.4 Selective Etching;138
9.5;6.5 Properties;139
9.5.1;6.5.1 Adhesion;140
9.5.2;6.5.2 Stress;141
9.5.3;6.5.3 Stiction;144
9.6;6.6 Wafer Bonding;145
9.6.1;6.6.1 Anodic Bonding;146
9.6.2;6.6.2 Fusion Bonding;147
9.7;6.7 Summary;148
9.8;6.8 References;150
10;7 Micromanufacturing for Document Security: Optically Variable Devices;154
10.1;7.1 Preamble;154
10.2;7.2 Introduction;154
10.3;7.3 OVD Foil Microstructures;156
10.3.1;7.3.1 The Security Hologram;156
10.3.2;7.3.2 The Kinegram;157
10.3.3;7.3.3 The Catpix Electron Beam Lithography Microstructure;160
10.3.4;7.3.4 Structural Stability;161
10.3.5;7.3.5 The Pixelgram Palette Concept;162
10.3.6;7.3.6 The Exelgram Track based OVD Microstructure;164
10.3.7;7.3.7 Covert Image Micrographic Security Features;167
10.3.8;7.3.8 Kinegram and Exelgram: Comparison;168
10.3.9;7.3.9 Vectorgram Image Multiplexing;168
10.3.10;7.3.10 Interstitial Groove Element Modulation;171
10.4;7.4 Generic OVD Microstructures;172
10.4.1;7.4.1 Optically Variable Ink Technology;173
10.4.2;7.4.2 Diffractive Data Foils;174
10.4.3;7.4.3 Biometric OVD Technology;177
10.5;7.5 NanoCODES;180
10.5.1;7.5.1 The Micromirror OVD;182
10.5.2;7.5.2 Origination of a Micromirror OVD;183
10.5.3;7.5.3 Summary of Micromirror OVD Optical Effects;187
10.6;7.6 Conclusions;189
10.7;7.7 References;190
11;8 Nanofinishing Techniques;194
11.1;8.1 Introduction;194
11.2;8.2 Traditional Finishing Processes;196
11.2.1;8.2.1 Grinding;196
11.2.2;8.2.2 Lapping;196
11.2.3;8.2.3 Honing;197
11.3;8.3 Advanced Finishing Processes (AFPs);197
11.3.1;8.3.1 Abrasive Flow Machining (AFM);198
11.3.2;8.3.2 Magnetic Abrasive Finishing (MAF);201
11.3.3;8.3.3 Magnetorheological Finishing (MRF);203
11.3.4;8.3.4 Magnetorheological Abrasive Flow Finishing (MRAFF);206
11.3.5;8.3.5 Magnetic Float Polishing (MFP);211
11.3.6;8.3.6 Elastic Emission Machining (EEM);212
11.3.7;8.3.7 Ion Beam Machining (IBM);213
11.3.8;8.3.8 Chemical Mechanical Polishing (CMP);215
11.4;8.4 References;216
12;9 Micro and Nanotechnology Applications for Space Micropropulsion;220
12.1;9.1 Introduction;220
12.2;9.2 Subsystems and Devices for Miniaturised Spacecrafts Micropropulsion;224
12.3;9.3 Propulsion Systems;230
12.3.1;9.3.1 Solid Propellant;231
12.3.2;9.3.2 Cold-Gas;231
12.3.3;9.3.3 Colloid Thrusters;231
12.3.4;9.3.4 Warm-Gas;231
12.3.5;9.3.5 Monopropellant and Bipropellant Systems;231
12.3.6;9.3.6 Regenerative-Pressurisation Cycles;232
12.3.7;9.3.7 ADCS;232
12.4;9.4 Realisation of a Cold-Gas Microthruster;232
12.4.1;9.4.1 Gas- and Fluid Dynamics;233
12.4.2;9.4.2 Prototyping;234
12.5;9.5 Conclusions;240
12.6;9.6 References;240
13;10 Carbon Nanotube Production and Applications: Basis of Nanotechnology;242
13.1;10.1 Introduction;242
13.2;10.2 Nanotechnology and Carbon Nanotube Promises;242
13.3;10.3 Growing Interest in Carbon Nanotube;244
13.4;10.4 Structure and Properties of Carbon Nanotubes;246
13.5;10.5 Production of Carbon Nanotube;248
13.5.1;10.5.1 Chemical Vapour Deposition;249
13.5.2;10.5.2 Arc Discharge;250
13.5.3;10.5.3 Laser Ablation;251
13.5.4;10.5.4 Mechanisms of Growth;252
13.5.5;10.5.5 Purification of Carbon Nanotube;253
13.6;10.6 Applications of Carbon Nanotubes;254
13.6.1;10.6.1 Electrical Transport of Carbon Nanotubes for FET;254
13.6.2;10.6.2 Computers;256
13.6.3;10.6.3 CNT Nanodevices for Biomedical Application;257
13.6.4;10.6.4 X-Ray Equipment;258
13.6.5;10.6.5 CNTs for Nanomechanic Actuator and Artificial Muscles;259
13.6.6;10.6.6 Fuel Cells;260
13.6.7;10.6.7 Membrane Electrode Assembly;261
13.6.8;10.6.8 Mechanical and Electrical Reinforcement of Bipolar Plates with CNTs;262
13.6.9;10.6.9 Hydrogen Storage in CNTs;263
13.7;10.7 References;264
14;11 Carbon based Nanostructures;270
14.1;11.1 Introduction;270
14.2;11.2 History of Fullerenes;270
14.3;11.3 Structure of Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs);271
14.3.1;11.3.1 Y-shaped;271
14.3.2;11.3.2 Double Helical;275
14.3.3;11.3.3 Bamboo-like Structure;275
14.3.4;11.3.4 Hierarchical Morphology Structure;275
14.3.5;11.3.5 Ring Structured MWCNTs;275
14.3.6;11.3.6 Cone Shape End Caps of MWCNTs;275
14.4;11.4 Structure of Fullerenes;276
14.4.1;11.4.1 Structure of C48 Fullerenes;276
14.4.2;11.4.2 Toroidal Fullerenes;276
14.4.3;11.4.3 Structure of C60, C59, C58, C57;276
14.4.4;11.4.4 The Smaller Fullerene C50;277
14.5;11.5 Structure of Carbon Nanoballs (CNBs);279
14.6;11.6 Structure of Carbon Nanofibers (CNFs);280
14.6.1;11.6.1 Hexagonal CNFs;280
14.6.2;11.6.2 Corn-shaped CNFs;280
14.6.3;11.6.3 Helical CNFs;280
14.7;11.7 Porous Carbon;281
14.8;11.8 Properties of Carbon Nanostructures;282
14.8.1;11.8.1 Molecular Properties;282
14.8.2;11.8.2 Electronic Properties;282
14.8.3;11.8.3 Optical Properties;282
14.8.4;11.8.4 Mechanical Properties;283
14.8.5;11.8.5 Periodic Properties;283
14.9;11.9 Synthesis;284
14.9.1;11.9.1 Carbon Nanotubes;284
14.9.2;11.9.2 Fullerenes;285
14.9.3;11.9.3 Nanoballs;286
14.9.4;11.9.4 Nanofibers;286
14.10;11.10 Potential Applications of Nanostructures;288
14.10.1;11.10.1 Energy Storage;288
14.10.2;11.10.2 Hydrogen Storage;288
14.10.3;11.10.3 Lithium Intercalation;289
14.10.4;11.10.4 Electrochemical Supercapacitors;290
14.10.5;11.10.5 Molecular Electronics with CNTs;291
14.11;11.11 Composite Materials;293
14.12;11.12 Summary;294
14.13;11.13 References;294
15;12 Molecular Logic Gates;298
15.1;12.1 Introduction;298
15.2;12.2 Logic Gates;298
15.3;12.3 Fluorescence based Molecular Logic Gates;300
15.4;12.4 Combinational Logic Circuits;308
15.5;12.5 Reconfigurable Molecular Logic;309
15.6;12.6 Absorption based Molecular Logic Gates;310
15.7;12.7 Molecular Logic Gates: Electronic Conductance;316
15.8;12.8 Conclusions;318
15.9;12.9 References;318
16;13 Nanomechanical Cantilever Devices for Biological Sensors;322
16.1;13.1 Introduction;322
16.2;13.2 Principles;323
16.3;13.3 Static Deformation Approach;324
16.4;13.4 Resonance Mode Approach;325
16.5;13.5 Heat Detection Approach;328
16.6;13.6 Microfabrication;329
16.6.1;13.6.1 Si-based Cantilever;329
16.6.2;13.6.2 Piezoresistive Integrated Cantilever;330
16.6.3;13.6.3 Piezoelectric Integrated Cantilever;331
16.7;13.7 Measurement and Readout Technique;332
16.7.1;13.7.1 Optical Method;332
16.7.2;13.7.2 Interferometry;333
16.7.3;13.7.3 Piezoresistive Method;333
16.7.4;13.7.4 Capacitance Method;334
16.7.5;13.7.5 Piezoelectric Method;334
16.8;13.8 Biological Sensing;336
16.8.1;13.8.1 DNA Detection;336
16.8.2;13.8.2 Protein Detection;338
16.8.3;13.8.3 Cell Detection;340
16.9;13.9 Conclusions;341
16.10;13.10 References;342
17;14 Micro Energy and Chemical Systems (MECS) and Multiscale Fabrication;346
17.1;14.1 Introduction;346
17.2;14.2 Micro Energy and Chemical Systems;350
17.2.1;14.2.1 Heat and Mass Transfer in MECS Devices;351
17.2.2;14.2.2 Applications of MECS Technology;351
17.3;14.3 MECS Fabrication;353
17.3.1;14.3.1 Challenges;353
17.3.2;14.3.2 Feature Sizes;354
17.3.3;14.3.3 Microlamination;355
17.4;14.4 Dimensional Control in Microlamination;357
17.4.1;14.4.1 Effects of Patterning on Microchannel Array Performance;358
17.4.2;14.4.2 Theory;359
17.4.3;14.4.3 Microchannel Fabrication;360
17.4.4;14.4.4 Results;361
17.5;14.5 Sources of Warpage in Microchannel Arrays;364
17.5.1;14.5.1 Analysis;366
17.5.2;14.5.2 Results;369
17.6;14.6 Effects of Registration and Bonding on Microchannel Array Performance;370
17.7;14.7 Geometrical Constraints in Microchannel Arrays;371
17.8;14.8 Economics of Microlamination;374
17.9;14.9 References;375
18;15 Sculptured Thin Films;380
18.1;15.1 Introduction;380
18.2;15.2 STF Growth;381
18.2.1;15.2.1 Experimental and Phenomenological;381
18.2.2;15.2.2 Computer Modeling;385
18.3;15. 3 Optical Properties;386
18.3.1;15.3.1 Theory;386
18.3.2;15.3.2 Characteristic Behavior;393
18.4;15.4 Applications;396
18.4.1;15.4.1 Optical;396
18.4.2;15.4.2 Chemical;398
18.4.3;15.4.3 Electronics;398
18.4.4;15.4.4 Biological;398
18.5;15.5 Concluding Remarks;399
18.6;15.6 References;400
19;16 e-Beam Nanolithography Integrated with Nanoassembly: Precision Chemical Engineering;406
19.1;16.1 Introduction;406
19.2;16.2 Electron-Beam Radiation;407
19.2.1;16.2.1 Polymeric Materials;407
19.2.2;16.2.2 Molecular Materials;408
19.3;16.3 Self-Assembled Monolayers;410
19.4;16.4 Summary and Outlook;414
19.5;16.5 References;415
20;17 Nanolithography in the Evanescent Near Field;420
20.1;17.1 Introduction;420
20.2;17.2 Historical Development;421
20.3;17.3 Principles of ENFOL;423
20.4;17.4 Mask Requirements and Fabrication;424
20.5;17.5 Pattern Definition;425
20.5.1;17.5.1 Exposure Conditions;425
20.5.2;17.5.2 Resist Requirements;426
20.5.3;the Diffraction Limit;426
20.6;17.6. Pattern Transfer;428
20.6.1;17.6.1 Subtractive Pattern Transfer;428
20.6.2;17.6.2 Additive Pattern Transfer;429
20.7;17.7 Simulations;430
20.7.1;17.7.1 Simulation Methods and Models;432
20.7.2;17.7.2 Intensity Distribution;433
20.7.3;17.7.3 Depth of Field (DOF);434
20.7.4;17.7.4 Exposure Variations due to Edge Enhancements;436
20.8;17.8 Nanolithography using Surface Plasmons;437
20.8.1;17.8.1 Evanescent Interferometric Lithography (EIL);438
20.8.2;17.8.2 Planar Lens Lithography (PLL);439
20.8.3;17.8.3 Surface Plasmon Enhanced Contact Lithography (SPECL);442
20.9;17.9 Conclusions;444
20.10;17.10 References;445
21;18 Nanotechnology for Fuel Cell Applications;448
21.1;18.1 Current State of the Knowledge and Needs;448
21.2;18.2 Nanoparticles in Heterogeneous Catalysis;450
21.3;18.3 Oxygen Electroreduction Reaction on Carbon-Supported Platinum Catalysts;452
21.4;18.4 Carbon Nanotubes as Catalyst Supports;455
21.5;18.5 Concluding Remarks;460
21.6;18.6 References;461
22;19 Derivatisation of Carbon Nanotubes with Amines: A Solvent-free Technique;464
22.1;19.1 Introduction;464
22.2;19.2 Experimental Design;465
22.3;19.3 Direct Amidation of Carboxylic Functionalities on Oxidised SWNT Tips;466
22.4;19.4 Direct Amine Addition to Closed Caps and Wall Defects of Pristine MWNTs;468
22.5;19.5 Conclusions;473
22.6;19.6 References;473
23;20 Chemical Crosslinking in C60 Thin Films;476
23.1;20.1 Introduction;476
23.2;20.2 Experiment;477
23.2.1;20.2.1 Analytical Instruments;477
23.2.2;20.2.2 Deposition of Fullerene Films;478
23.2.3;20.2.3 Reaction with 1,8-Diaminooctane;478
23.3;20.3 Results and Discussion;478
23.3.1;20.3.1 (1,8)-Diaminooctane-derivatised C60 Powder;478
23.3.2;20.3.2 1,8-Diaminooctane-derivatised C60 Films;479
24;Index;486

Leseproben

4 Soft Geometrical Error Compensation Methods Using Laser Interferometer (p. 63-64)

K. K. Tan and S. N. Huang
National University of Singapore, Singapore

4.1 Introduction

Micromachining is a key technology in the important fields of microimprinting, scanning microscopy, microlithography and automated alignment. A large proportion of these machines require accurate positioning of tools or probes with respect to a workpiece. Thus, much challenges behind the metrology is concerned with the accurate measurement of absolute positions and the subsequent reduction of the geometrical errors associated with this position. Compensation for geometrical errors in machines has been applied to Co-ordinate Measuring Machines (CMMs) and machine tools to minimise the relative position errors between the end-effector of the machine and the workpiece (Hocken 1980).

Given an adequate machine design, a large proportion of these errors are completely repeatable and reproducible, and therefore amenable to modelling and compensation. While widespread incorporation of error compensation in machine tools has remained to be seen, the application in CMMs is tremendous and today, it is difficult to find a CMM manufacturer who does not use error compensation in one form or another (Hocken 1980). The development in error compensation is well documented by Evans (Evans 1989). Early compensation methods utilised mechanical correctors, in the form of leadscrew correctors, cams and reference straightedges. Maudslay and Donking, for example, used leadscrew correction to compensate for the errors in their scales producing machine. Compensation via mechanical correction, however, inevitably increases the complexity of the physical machine. Furthermore, mechanical corrections rapidly cease to be effective due to mechanical wear and tear. The corrective components have to be serviced or replaced on a regular basis, all of which contribute to higher machine downtime and costs. The evolution of control systems from mechanical and pneumatic-based subsystems to micromachining-based systems has opened up a wide range of new and exciting possibilities. Many operations which used to be the result of complex linkages of levers, cams, bailing wires and optical sensors can now be carried out efficiently with program codes residing in the memory of a standard computer. Soft compensation schemes thus blossomed in the 1970s. The first implementation was on a Moore N.5 CMM, a pioneering piece of work which earned Hocken the CIRP Taylor Medal in 1977. Since then, there has been an explosion of interests in soft compensation of CMM and micromachining system errors with new methods developed and implemented (Hocken et. al. 1977; Love and Scarr 1973; Kunzmann and Waldele 1984). Common to all these works and more is a model of the machine errors, which is either implicitly or explicitly used in the compensator. A common issue with these approaches is the challenge to have an adequately accurate model, which is also amenable to practical use.

4.2 Overview of Geometrical Error Calibration

Error modeling typically begins with a calibration of the errors at selected points within the operational space of the machine. For a 3D working space, the resultant geometrical errors in positioning may be decomposed into 21 underlying components. For the XY table with zero tool offsets, the error sources reduce to 7 components, including two linear errors, two angular errors, two straightness errors and the orthogonal error between the X- and Y-axis. These errors may be measured accurately using an independent metrology system such as a laser interferometer which can typically measure linear displacement to an accuracy of 1nm and angular displacement to an accuracy of 0.002 arcsec. These errors are subsequently cumulated using the overall error model to yield the overall positional error. A 3D machine has a volumetric error model described by (Zhang et al. 1985).