Maier The Philosophy and Practice of Medicine and Bioethics

A Naturalistic-Humanistic Approach
1. Auflage 2010
ISBN: 978-90-481-8867-3
Verlag: Springer-Verlag
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: Adobe DRM (»Systemvoraussetzungen)

E-Book, Englisch, 543 Seiten

This book challenges the unchallenged methods in medicine, such as 'evidence-based medicine,' which claim to be, but often are not, scientific. It completes medical care by adding the comprehensive humanistic perspectives and philosophy of medicine. No specific or absolute recommendations are given regarding medical treatment, moral approaches, or legal advice. Given rather is discussion about each issue involved and the strongest arguments indicated. Each argument is subject to further critical analysis. This is the same position as with any philosophical, medical or scientific view. The argument that decision-making in medicine is inadequate unless grounded on a philosophy of medicine is not meant to include all of philosophy and every philosopher. On the contrary, it includes only sound, practical and humanistic philosophy and philosophers who are creative and critical thinkers and who have concerned themselves with the topics relevant to medicine. These would be those philosophers who engage in practical philosophy, such as the pragmatists, humanists, naturalists, and ordinary-language philosophers. A new definition of our own philosophy of life emerges and it is necessary to have one. Good lifestyle no longer means just abstaining from cigarettes, alcohol and getting exercise. It also means living a holistic life, which includes all of one's thinking, personality and actions. This book also includes new ways of thinking. In this regard the 'Metaphorical Method' is explained, used, and exemplified in depth, for example in the chapters on care, egoism and altruism, letting die, etc.

Warren Shibles was a Senior philosophy professor at the University of Wisconsin at Whitewater, Wisconsin and also taught courses at Tübingen, Germany. He has published 27 books, and over 180 professional journal articles.He also was a researcher in phonetics. He died in July 2007. Barbara Maier is a Senior physician, gynaecologist and obstetrician at the Women`s Hospital in Salzburg and head of the Department of Gynaecological Endocrinology and Assisted Reproduction at the University Clinic of Gynaecology and Obstetrics in Salzburg, Austria. She has been teaching ethics in medicine at the Institute for Ethics and Law at the University of Vienna since 1993. She has a Ph.D. in Philosophy, and M.D from the University of Vienna.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Maier, Barbara

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Contents;7
2;The Rationale Behind the Book;18
3;About the Authors;22
4;1 Metaphor in Medicine: The Metaphorical Method;23
4.1;1.1 Introduction;23
4.2;1.2 Types of Metaphor;26
4.2.1;1.2.1 Substitution;26
4.2.2;1.2.2 Juxtaposition;26
4.2.3;1.2.3 Analogy, Simile, or Comparison;26
4.2.4;1.2.4 Symbolism;26
4.2.5;1.2.5 Metonymy;26
4.2.6;1.2.6 Synecdoche;27
4.2.7;1.2.7 Synesthesia;27
4.2.8;1.2.8 Reversal;27
4.2.9;1.2.9 Personification;27
4.2.10;1.2.10 Oxymora or Combination of Opposites;28
4.2.11;1.2.11 Deviation;28
4.2.12;1.2.12 Metaphor-to-Myth Fallacy;28
4.3;1.3 Metaphorical Methods Should be Considered for Analysis of and Writing Research Papers;29
4.4;1.4 Case Example: A Healthcare Worker (H) Patient (P) Metaphoric: H/P Modeling in Medicine;33
4.5;1.5 H/P Models;34
4.5.1;1.5.1 H = P;34
4.5.2;1.5.2 H versus P;34
4.5.3;1.5.3 Not H and not P;34
4.5.4;1.5.4 H or P;35
4.5.5;1.5.5 H and P;35
4.5.6;1.5.6 H not P;35
4.5.7;1.5.7 P not H;35
4.5.8;1.5.8 H (verb) P;35
4.5.9;1.5.9 P (verb) H;35
4.5.10;1.5.10 H = P;35
4.5.11;1.5.11 H ? P;35
4.6;References;36
5;2 Definition;37
5.1;2.1 Where Does It Come from that We Think We Need to Define?;37
5.2;2.2 Distinction Between Types of Definition;40
5.3;References;43
6;3 Decision-Making: Fallacies and Other Mistakes;45
6.1;3.1 Conditions of Decision-Making;45
6.2;3.2 Frequent Causes of Irrational Medical Thinking and Decision-Making;46
6.3;3.3 Five Levels of Decision-Making in Medicine;50
6.4;3.4 Fallacies in Decision-Making;51
6.5;3.5 Mistakes;56
6.5.1;3.5.1 What are Mistakes?;56
6.5.2;3.5.2 What are Indications of Errors?;57
6.5.3;3.5.3 Indications that Mistakes are Often Preventable Ones;58
6.5.4;3.5.4 What are the Reasons for the Mistakes?;59
6.5.4.1;3.5.4.1 Questionable Medical Treatments;59
6.5.4.2;3.5.4.2 Error is Necessary;59
6.5.4.3;3.5.4.3 Uncritical Thinking (Speaking);59
6.5.4.4;3.5.4.4 Medical Knowledge Is Lacking;59
6.5.4.5;3.5.4.5 System as a Cause of Error;59
6.5.4.6;3.5.4.6 Some Mistakes Are Not Mistakes;60
6.5.4.7;3.5.4.7 Guidelines Are Not Followed;60
6.5.4.8;3.5.4.8 Self-Caused Mistakes;60
6.5.4.9;3.5.4.9 Patient Errors;60
6.5.4.10;3.5.4.10 Lack of Sufficient Attention;60
6.5.4.11;3.5.4.11 Misdiagnosis;60
6.5.4.12;3.5.4.12 Overwork;61
6.5.4.13;3.5.4.13 Limitations of Knowledge in Medicine;61
6.5.4.14;3.5.4.14 Unfair Medical Threats of Malpractice Suits Threaten Physicians;61
6.5.4.15;3.5.4.15 Unfair Blame;61
6.5.4.16;3.5.4.16 Protocols of Good Management Are Violated;62
6.5.4.17;3.5.4.17 Unfairness of the Law;62
6.5.4.18;3.5.4.18 Negative Emotions;63
6.5.5;3.5.5 Case Example: Misleading Diagnosis;63
6.5.6;3.5.6 Personal Experiences: Mistakes;64
6.6;References;65
7;4 Analysis of Causation in Medicine;67
7.1;4.1 Decision-Making and Cause;68
7.2;4.2 Synonyms of Cause;70
7.3;4.3 Antonyms for Cause;71
7.4;4.4 Metaphorical Models for Cause;71
7.5;4.5 Substitutions for Cause;71
7.6;4.6 Temporal Factors in Causality;71
7.7;4.7 Types of Causality;72
7.8;4.8 Summary;84
7.9;References;85
8;5 Ethics and Non-ethics;87
8.1;5.1 Introduction;87
8.2;5.2 A Naturalistic Theory of Ethics;91
8.3;5.3 What Is Ethics in Actual Usage?;94
8.4;5.4 Ethics and Morals: An Unethical Society;102
8.5;5.5 Value Contradictions;105
8.6;5.6 Examples of Contradictions;106
8.7;5.7 On Being Non-ethical and Anti-Inquiry;109
8.8;5.8 Brief Conclusion;111
8.9;5.9 An Ethics Text for British Medical Schools;112
8.10;5.10 Case Example: Medicine and Dysfunctional Culture (Made Available by Dr Wolf Michael Luetje, Head of the Womens Hospital Viersee in Germany);113
8.11;5.11 Case Example: Military Medical Service as Contradictory to Medical Practice;114
8.12;5.12 Insensitivity to Killing: The Failure to be Embarrassed;117
8.13;5.13 Case Example: On Sensitivity;119
8.14;5.14 Case Example: Tsunami Disaster and Cultural Irresponsibility;120
8.15;5.15 Case Example: Culture and Family as Anti-Medicine: Female Circumcision;122
8.16;References;125
9;6 Medicotheology and Biotheology;133
9.1;6.1 Introduction: How Many People Have Religious Beliefs?;133
9.2;6.2 The Influence of Religion on Bioethics and Medicine;134
9.3;6.3 Church Opposition to Medicine;137
9.4;6.4 Should Medicine Be Based on Supernaturalism?;139
9.5;6.5 Science and Metaphysical Causes?;139
9.6;6.6 Case Example: Religion and Autonomy;140
9.7;6.7 Religion Versus Medicine: A Common Ground?;141
9.8;6.8 Religion as Ethics;142
9.9;6.9 Ethics Committees;143
9.10;6.10 Humanism Versus Religion;144
9.11;6.11 Absolute Religious Ethics Versus Consequentialism;145
9.12;6.12 Case Example: Deprogramming Religion in Medicine;145
9.13;6.13 Case Example: A Real Woman;146
9.14;6.14 The Person as a Soul;147
9.15;6.15 Sanctity-of-Life (Human);147
9.16;6.16 General Observations Regarding the Value of Human Life;148
9.17;6.17 Contradictions Regarding the Sanctity-of-Life Doctrine;149
9.18;6.18 Selected Arguments from the Philosophy of Religion;150
9.19;6.19 Prayer as Medical Treatment;151
9.20;References;154
10;7 Emotion In Medicine;158
10.1;7.1 Introduction;158
10.2;7.2 Case Example: Non-mental Associations Provide Complexity to Cognitions;161
10.3;7.3 Emotion Is Not an Internal State;161
10.4;7.4 Emotions Can Be Changed;162
10.5;7.5 The Happy Stoics: Passionate Rational Emotion;163
10.6;7.6 Virtually All Judgments Involve Emotion;163
10.7;7.7 Emotion Can Change with Bodily Feeling;164
10.8;7.8 Emotion Is Not Passive;165
10.9;7.9 Emotions Are Unique;166
10.10;7.10 Rejection of the Release Theory of Emotions;166
10.11;7.11 Case Example: Emotion Requires Assessment;167
10.12;7.12 Negative Emotions Are Philosophical Language Fallacies;168
10.13;7.13 Some Traditional Examples of Philosophy of Language Fallacies;169
10.14;7.14 Pity;170
10.15;7.15 Hope and Humor;171
10.16;7.16 Case Example: Patients Negative Emotions;171
10.17;7.17 Can Emotions Be Reduced to Physiology?;172
10.18;7.18 How Are Diseases and Emotions Classified?;173
10.19;7.19 Case Example: Legal Recognition of Emotional Harm;174
10.20;7.20 Brief Summary of the Cognitive Theory of Emotion;175
10.21;7.21 Case Example: The Cognitions Involved in the Emotion of Interest;176
10.22;References;177
11;8 Enlightened Versus Normative Management: Ethics versus Morals;181
11.1;8.1 Introduction;181
11.2;8.2 Requirements for Good Management;183
11.3;8.3 Special Section on Overwork: A Failed Metaphor of the Medical System;202
11.3.1;8.3.1 Introduction;202
11.3.2;8.3.2 How Many Hours Do Physicians, Nurses and Healthcare Workers Work?;203
11.3.3;8.3.3 Attempts to Limit the Number of Work Hours;203
11.3.4;8.3.4 Do Physicians and Nurses Also Cause the Problems of Overwork?;205
11.3.5;8.3.5 What Is the Effect of Overwork?;207
11.3.6;8.3.6 Overwork Harms Health of Staff;208
11.3.7;8.3.7 Overwork Increases Sick Leave;208
11.3.8;8.3.8 Overwork Causes Stress and Burnout and Addictions;209
11.3.9;8.3.9 Overwork and Suicide;210
11.3.10;8.3.10 Overwork Causes Loss of Quality of Life;210
11.3.11;8.3.11 Overwork Is a Cause of Negative Emotions;210
11.3.12;8.3.12 Overwork Causes Loss of Interest in Medical Practice;211
11.3.13;8.3.13 What Is the Legal Result of Overwork?;211
11.3.14;8.3.14 Denial that Healthcare Workers Overwork and/or that It Is Harmful;212
11.3.15;8.3.15 Is There Evidence for the Harm of Overwork?;213
11.4;References;216
12;9 Care: A Critique of the Ethics and Emotion of Care;221
12.1;9.1 Introduction;221
12.2;9.2 Care Theories;222
12.3;9.3 The Word-Field Meanings of Caring;226
12.3.1;9.3.1 Introduction;226
12.3.2;9.3.2 The Synonyms and Word-Field of the Term ''Caring.'';227
12.4;9.4 Irrational Forms of Caring (See Also Empathy and Sympathy);228
12.5;9.5 The Cognitive-Emotive Theory of Caring;231
12.5.1;9.5.1 Feeling;232
12.5.2;9.5.2 Caring Is a Value Cognition Causing Feeling [Caring = (Cognition > Feeling)];232
12.5.3;9.5.3 Caring Is Based on Positive Cognitions;233
12.5.4;9.5.4 Emotions Can Be Changed;233
12.5.5;9.5.5 We Cause Our Own Emotions: Caring Is Caused by Ourselves;234
12.5.6;9.5.6 The Passionate Stoics: Rational Emotion, Rational Caring;235
12.5.7;9.5.7 Negative Emotion Changes with Feeling;235
12.5.8;9.5.8 Negative Emotion Is Not Passive;235
12.5.9;9.5.9 Each Emotion of Caring Is Unique;236
12.5.10;9.5.10 Rejection of the Release Theory of Caring;236
12.5.11;9.5.11 Judgments Generally Involve Emotion;236
12.5.12;9.5.12 Metaemotion;237
12.6;9.6 Caring and Negative Emotions;237
12.7;9.7 Mutuality of Caring;238
12.8;9.8 The Patients Hippocratic Oath;238
12.9;9.9 Empathy and Caring;239
12.10;9.10 Summary;241
12.11;References;243
13;10 Egoism and Altruism in Medicine;247
13.1;10.1 Introduction;247
13.2;10.2 Common Definition of Altruism and Egoism;247
13.3;10.3 Definitions of Altruism;248
13.4;10.4 Definitions of Egoism;248
13.5;10.5 An Analysis of the Word-Fields of Altruism and Egoism;248
13.5.1;10.5.1 The Word-Field of Altruism;249
13.5.2;10.5.2 The Word-Field of Egoism;249
13.6;10.6 Altruism Versus Egoism;250
13.7;10.7 The Problem of the Self;251
13.8;10.8 The Ethical Basis of Altruism and Egoism;252
13.8.1;10.8.1 General Remarks;252
13.8.2;10.8.2 Utilitarian Altruism;253
13.8.3;10.8.3 Ayn Rand's Objectivist Egoism;253
13.8.4;10.8.4 The Ordinary Language Basis of Altruism and Egoism;255
13.9;10.9 Altruism and Egoism as Emotions;255
13.9.1;10.9.1 Altruistic and Egoistic Emotions Are Not Mere Bodily Feelings;256
13.9.2;10.9.2 Altruism and Egoism Are Cognitions Causing Bodily Feelings [26] ;256
13.9.3;10.9.3 The Emotions of Altruism and Egoism Can Be Changed;256
13.9.4;10.9.4 Altruism and Egoism Are Based on Value Cognitions;257
13.10;10.10 Sympathy;258
13.11;10.11 Selfishness;259
13.12;10.12 Rational Altruism and Egoism;261
13.13;10.13 Summary;262
13.14;References;262
14;11 Letting Die;264
14.1;11.1 Introduction;264
14.2;11.2 Misuse of Ethical Terms;268
14.3;11.3 Criteria for Preferential Treatment: Non-contradiction;269
14.4;11.4 Case Example: Oregon Healthcare Prioritizing;269
14.5;11.5 What About Self-Caused Illness and How to Determine?;270
14.6;11.6 The Hippocratic Oath: Pacifism in Medicine?;273
14.7;11.7 Should We Kill X to Save Y? The Numbers Game;276
14.8;11.8 Allowing Death = Killing = Murder;281
14.9;11.9 Letting-Die and the Samaritan;283
14.10;11.10 Albert Schweitzer on Reverence for Life ;286
14.11;11.11 Negative Emotions Kill and Let Die;289
14.12;11.12 Lack of Organs for Transplantation as a Form of Letting Die;289
14.13;11.13 Suicide and Euthanasia;289
14.14;11.14 Conclusion;292
14.15;References;293
15;12 A Critique of Autonomy and Patient Responsibility;299
15.1;12.1 Introduction;299
15.2;12.2 Criticisms of the Principle of Autonomy;300
15.3;12.3 Patient Responsibility and a Patient Code of Ethics;309
15.4;12.4 Patients Duties;311
15.5;12.5 Case Report: Patient and Legal Irresponsibility;313
15.6;References;313
16;13 Philosophy and Ethics of the Body;317
16.1;13.1 Introduction;317
16.2;13.2 Definition of Philosophy and Body;318
16.3;13.3 The Scientific Method: Medicine as a Science;319
16.4;13.4 A Naturalistic Ethics of the Body;320
16.5;13.5 The Value of Life in Terms of the Body;321
16.6;13.6 The Mind;323
16.7;13.7 The Self as a Language Construct;323
16.8;13.8 The Un-philosophical Body;325
16.9;13.9 Outward Physical Appearances: Beauty;326
16.10;13.10 The Face;327
16.11;13.11 The Body as a Whole and Body Parts: Organs and Transplantation Medicine;328
16.12;13.12 Reproduction of Bodies?;329
16.13;13.13 Leib: Living to the Full;329
16.14;13.14 The Philosophical Body: The Body as an Aesthetic Whole;330
16.15;13.15 Summary of the Ethics of the Body;331
16.16;References;331
17;14 Organ Donation: Mandatory Organ Donation Declaration;334
17.1;14.1 How Many People Need Organs?;334
17.2;14.2 Death Requirement;336
17.3;14.3 Opposition to Organ Donation;337
17.4;14.4 Support of Organ Donation;338
17.5;14.5 Presumed Organ Donation;339
17.6;14.6 Family Approval as an Adverse Policy;341
17.7;14.7 Recommendations for Obtaining Organs for Transplantation;342
17.7.1;14.7.1 Lottery;342
17.7.2;14.7.2 The Economic Incentive Approach;343
17.7.3;14.7.3 Irresponsible Lifestyles and Organ Preference;343
17.7.4;14.7.4 Mandatory Organ Donation Declaration;346
17.8;References;348
18;15 Embryonic Stem Cell Research: A Question of Beliefs?;351
18.1;15.1 Introduction;351
18.2;15.2 Definitions and Clarifications of Morals and Ethics;352
18.3;15.3 Facts and Beliefs About Stem Cells;353
18.3.1;15.3.1 What We Already Know About Stem Cells;353
18.3.2;15.3.2 The Promise of Stem Cell Research in General;355
18.4;15.4 The Controversy About What an Embryo Is;356
18.4.1;15.4.1 Definitions;356
18.4.2;15.4.2 Embryonic Development in Its Context;357
18.4.3;15.4.3 The Moral Status Ascribed to an Embryo;357
18.4.4;15.4.4 Life Is Not Just Life: When Is a Human a Human?;358
18.5;15.5 Ethical Issues in Stem Cell Research;359
18.5.1;15.5.1 How to Perform an Ethical Examination?;359
18.5.2;15.5.2 Inquiry into Language;360
18.5.3;15.5.3 The Abortion Argument All Over Again?;361
18.5.4;15.5.4 Adult Stem Cell Research-an Alternative to Embryonic Stem Cell Research? Other Alternatives?;362
18.5.5;15.5.5 IVF ''Left Over'' Embryos Versus ''Created for Research'' Embryos;362
18.5.6;15.5.6 Public Funding?;363
18.5.7;15.5.7 The Ethical Challenge of Research;365
18.6;15.6 Conclusions: Humaine Medicine Medicine for Suffering People;366
18.7;References;366
19;16 The Philosophy of Prevention;371
19.1;16.1 Introduction;371
19.2;16.2 An Analysis of Prevention;372
19.3;16.3 Unethical Behavior and Irresponsible Lifestyles;376
19.4;16.4 Lifestyle as Philosophical and Critical Thinking;377
19.5;16.5 Areas of Prevention;378
19.5.1;16.5.1 Education: The Greatest Preventative of Disorder;378
19.5.2;16.5.2 Cancer Prevention;378
19.5.3;16.5.3 AIDS;381
19.5.4;16.5.4 Alzheimer's Disease (AD);381
19.5.5;16.5.5 Lack of Exercise: The Obvious Escapes Us;382
19.5.6;16.5.6 Sexually Transmitted Disease (STD);382
19.5.7;16.5.7 Longevity;383
19.5.8;16.5.8 Death and Disease;384
19.5.9;16.5.9 Hand-Washing: The Obvious Escapes Us Again;385
19.5.10;16.5.10 Drugs and Toxins;385
19.6;16.6 Hidden Prevention Possibilities;387
19.7;16.7 Summary;394
19.8;References;394
20;17 Ethics Counseling: Philosophy of Medicine Counseling Instead of Medical Ethics Counseling;399
20.1;17.1 Introduction;399
20.2;17.2 What is Ethics Counseling (EC)?;402
20.2.1;17.2.1 Task Force on Standards of Bioethics Consultation (USA);402
20.2.2;17.2.2 Basic Ethical Principles in European Bioethics and Biolaw;404
20.2.2.1;17.2.2.1 Autonomy [38] (See also Chapter 12);406
20.2.2.2;17.2.2.2 Dignity;407
20.2.2.3;17.2.2.3 Integrity [60] and Narrative Analysis;409
20.2.2.4;17.2.2.4 Vulnerability [76];411
20.2.2.5;17.2.2.5 Solidarity and Social Responsibility [76];411
20.3;17.3 Criticism of Bioethical Principlism;412
20.4;17.4 Case Method of Clinical Ethics;417
20.5;17.5 Holistic Philosophy of Medicine;421
20.6;17.6 Brief Description of Deweys Pragmatism and Naturalistic Ethics;424
20.7;17.7 Humanism Contains Many of the Elements of Contemporary Definitions of Philosophical Practice (PP);425
20.8;17.8 The Present Definitions and Methods of Philosophical Counseling (PC) are Too Restrictive;426
20.9;17.9 Philosophical Counseling or Philosophical Practice (PP);428
20.10;17.10 A Proposal to Change the Title of Philosophical Practice to Philosophy Education;430
20.11;17.11 The Philosophy Practitioner and Emotion;431
20.12;17.12 Summary;433
20.13;References;433
21;18 Medical Language: The Ordinary Language Approach;443
21.1;18.1 Introduction;443
21.2;18.2 Formal Logic as a Pseudo-Logical Failure;447
21.3;18.3 Formal Logic is Irrelevant to Thought, Reason and Emotion;449
21.4;18.4 Formal Logic as Irrelevant to Ethics or Bioethics;451
21.5;18.5 Formal Logic as Formal Fallacy;451
21.6;18.6 Formal Logic as a Fallacy of Abstractionism;451
21.7;18.7 The Arrogance of Logicians;452
21.8;18.8 Formal Logic Reduces Language to Mathematics;452
21.9;18.9 Formal Logic as a Faulty View of Meaning;453
21.10;18.10 Propositions: A Pseudo-Logical Term;454
21.11;18.11 Formal Logic as Dogmatism and Misuse of Symbols;455
21.12;18.12 Formal Logic Misuses the Term Truth;456
21.13;18.13 The Useless Syllogism;457
21.14;18.14 Formal Logic is Not Philosophy;457
21.15;18.15 The Primacy of Ordinary Language and Pragmatism;458
21.16;18.16 Formal Logic Excludes Metaphor and Creative Language;459
21.17;References;461
22;19 A Critique of Evidence-Based Medicine (EBM): Evidence-Based Medicine and Philosophy-Based Medicine;468
22.1;19.1 Does EBM Really Meet the Challenge of Modern Medicine?;468
22.2;19.2 What Is the View of Evidence in EBM Is It Left Undefined?;471
22.3;19.3 EBM as Statistics;472
22.4;19.4 EBM Often Investigates the Obvious and Trivial;473
22.5;19.5 EBM Bears the Risk of Overgeneralization;474
22.6;19.6 EBM Is Often Unintelligibly Complex;474
22.7;19.7 EBM Is Often Too Abstractionistic;475
22.8;19.8 EBM as Appeal to Authority Fallacy;475
22.9;19.9 EBM and the Individual Case and Context;476
22.10;19.10 Uncritical Use of EBM and Clinical Experience;477
22.11;19.11 EBM Often Excludes Relevant Causes and Variables;478
22.12;19.12 EBM Has Limited Self-Criticism;480
22.13;19.13 EBM and Psychiatry;480
22.14;19.14 EBM and Human Emotions;481
22.15;19.15 EBM and Ethics;481
22.16;19.16 EBM Depersonalizes;481
22.17;19.17 EBM Text Reviews;482
22.17.1;19.17.1 Evidence-Based Spirituality;482
22.17.2;19.17.2 EBM and Practical Medicine;482
22.17.3;19.17.3 Evidence-Based Nursing;482
22.17.4;19.17.4 EBM and Logic;483
22.17.5;19.17.5 EBM and Gender Medicine;483
22.18;19.18 EBM and Rational Medicine;484
22.19;19.19 EBM, Psychosomatics and Philosophy;485
22.20;19.20 EBM and the Problem of the Placebo;486
22.21;19.21 Philosophy of Medicine Based Medicine Instead of Only Evidence Based Medicine;494
22.22;References;496
23;20 Lying in Medicine;502
23.1;20.1 Introduction;502
23.2;20.2 Definitions of Lying;503
23.3;20.3 A New Theory of Lying;503
23.4;20.4 Self-Lie;504
23.5;20.5 Consequences of Lying;505
23.6;20.6 Logic of Flattery: Beneficial Lying;508
23.7;20.7 Hypocrisy;508
23.8;References;509
24;21 The Rhetoric of Death and Dying;511
24.1;21.1 Definitions of Death;511
24.1.1;21.1.1 General Definitions;512
24.1.2;21.1.2 Medical-Psychological Definitions of Death;512
24.1.3;21.1.3 Death and Abortion;512
24.2;21.2 Death: The Literature;513
24.2.1;21.2.1 The Poet's View;513
24.2.2;21.2.2 Wittgenstein on Death;516
24.2.2.1;21.2.2.1 Death as a Language-Game [15];516
24.2.2.2;21.2.2.2 The Question: What is Death?;519
24.2.2.3;21.2.2.3 Death is not a Thought or Concept;519
24.2.2.4;21.2.2.4 The Epistemological Primacy of Language;520
24.2.2.5;21.2.2.5 The Death of Mentalistic Meaning;521
24.2.2.6;21.2.2.6 There is no Non-linguistic Knowledge of Death;521
24.2.2.7;21.2.2.7 Language-Games Again and Again;522
24.2.2.8;21.2.2.8 What Death is Not;522
24.2.2.9;21.2.2.9 Imagery and Sensation;523
24.2.2.10;21.2.2.10 Can We Imagine Death?;523
24.2.2.11;21.2.2.11 Illustrations;524
24.3;21.3 Dying;524
24.3.1;21.3.1 The Cognitive-Emotive Theory;524
24.3.2;21.3.2 The Cognitive-Emotive Theory of Grief and Bereavement;526
24.4;21.4 Philosophy of Religion;528
24.4.1;21.4.1 Views in Theology;528
24.4.2;21.4.2 Old Testament;528
24.4.3;21.4.3 New Testament;529
24.5;21.5 Humanism;530
24.6;21.6 The Rhetoric of Death Using the Metaphorical Method;531
24.6.1;21.6.1 Introduction to the Metaphorical Method;531
24.6.2;21.6.2 Rhetorical Techniques for the Exploration of the Concept;533
24.6.2.1;21.6.2.1 Abstraction (Fallacy);533
24.6.2.2;21.6.2.2 All-Statements or None-Statements (Also ''Always'' and ''Never'' Statements);534
24.6.2.3;21.6.2.3 Allegory (cf., Symbol);534
24.6.2.4;21.6.2.4 Ambiguity;534
24.6.2.5;21.6.2.5 Analogy and Simile (cf., Category-Mistake, Simile);534
24.6.2.6;21.6.2.6 Behavioral Metaphor;535
24.6.2.7;21.6.2.7 Category-Mistakes (cf., Context Deviation);535
24.6.2.8;21.6.2.8 Grammatical Term Metaphors;536
24.6.2.9;21.6.2.9 Circularity;536
24.6.2.10;21.6.2.10 Connotation (cf., Free Association);537
24.6.2.11;21.6.2.11 Context Deviation (cf., Category-Mistake);537
24.6.2.12;21.6.2.12 Contradiction Humor (cf., Poetic Metaphor);537
24.6.2.13;21.6.2.13 Defense Mechanisms;539
24.6.2.14;21.6.2.14 Deviation;539
24.6.2.15;21.6.2.15 Euphemism;539
24.6.2.16;21.6.2.16 Free Association (cf., Connotation);539
24.6.2.17;21.6.2.17 Hopelessness;539
24.6.2.18;21.6.2.18 Irony;540
24.6.2.19;21.6.2.19 Juxtaposition;540
24.6.2.20;21.6.2.20 Metaphor and Metaphorization;540
24.6.2.21;21.6.2.21 Metonymy;541
24.6.2.22;21.6.2.22 Personification;541
24.6.2.23;21.6.2.23 Poetic Metaphor;541
24.6.2.24;21.6.2.24 Probability;542
24.6.2.25;21.6.2.25 (Faulty) Questions and Riddles;543
24.6.2.26;21.6.2.26 Reduction to Absurdity;543
24.6.2.27;21.6.2.27 Rejuvenate Metaphors;543
24.6.2.28;21.6.2.28 Reversal Humor;543
24.6.2.29;21.6.2.29 Substitution;543
24.6.2.30;21.6.2.30 Tension Metaphors;543
24.6.2.31;21.6.2.31 Uselessness;544
24.6.2.32;21.6.2.32 Therapeutic Metaphor;544
24.7;21.7 Death and Medical Profession;544
24.8;21.8 Final Personal Remarks;545
24.9;References;545
25;Index;550