Mertikas Gravity, Geoid and Earth Observation

IAG Commission 2: Gravity Field, Chania, Crete, Greece, 23-27 June 2008
1. Auflage 2010
ISBN: 978-3-642-10634-7
Verlag: Springer
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: Wasserzeichen (»Systemvoraussetzungen)

E-Book, Englisch, 702 Seiten

These Proceedings include the written version of papers presented at the IAG International Symposium on 'Gravity, Geoid and Earth Observation 2008'. The Symposium was held in Chania, Crete, Greece, 23-27 June 2008 and organized by the Laboratory of Geodesy and Geomatics Engineering, Technical University of Crete, Greece. The meeting was arranged by the International Association of Geodesy and in particular by the IAG Commission 2: Gravity Field. The symposium aimed at bringing together geodesists and geophysicists working in the general areas of gravity, geoid, geodynamics and Earth observation. Besides covering the traditional research areas, special attention was paid to the use of geodetic methods for: Earth observation, environmental monitoring, Global Geodetic Observing System (GGOS), Earth Gravity Models (e.g., EGM08), geodynamics studies, dedicated gravity satellite missions (i.e., GOCE), airborne gravity surveys, Geodesy and geodynamics in polar regions, and the integration of geodetic and geophysical information.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Mertikas, Stelios

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Preface;6
2;Contents;9
3;Contributors;18
4;Part I Gravimetry (Terrestrial, Shipborne, Airborne) and Gravity Networks;34
4.1;Chapter
1 Preliminary Results of a GPS/INS Airborne Gravimetry Experiment Over the German Alps;35
4.1.1;1.1 Introduction;35
4.1.2;1.2 Setup of the Airborne Experiment;36
4.1.2.1;1.2.1 Instrumentation;36
4.1.2.2;1.2.2 Test Area and Trajectory;36
4.1.2.3;1.2.3 Precise Point Positioning;37
4.1.3;1.3 Observational Model;37
4.1.4;1.4 Data Processing;38
4.1.5;1.5 Preliminary Results;38
4.1.6;1.6 Summary and Outlook;40
4.1.7;References;41
4.2;Chapter
2 Co-seismic Gravity Changes Computed for a Spherical Earth Model Applicable to GRACE Data;42
4.2.1;2.1 Introduction;42
4.2.2;2.2 Dislocation Theory Applicable in Satellite Data;43
4.2.3;2.3 Co-seismic Gravity Changes on the Deformed Earth Surface;44
4.2.4;2.4 Co-seismic Gravity Changes at Space-Fixed Point;45
4.2.5;2.5 Co-seismic Gravity Changes by Damping High-Frequency Part;46
4.2.6;2.6 Are Co-seismic Gravity Changes Detectable for a M8.4 Earthquake?;46
4.2.7;2.7 Summary;47
4.2.8;References;47
4.3;Chapter
3 On Ambiguities in Definitions and Applications of Bouguer Gravity Anomaly;49
4.3.1;3.1 Anomalous Gravity Gravity Anomaly and Disturbance;49
4.3.2;3.2 Topographically Corrected Anomalous Gravity;50
4.3.3;3.3 Bouguer Anomaly Ambiguous Definitions;51
4.3.4;3.4 Gravity Data Geophysical Versus Geodetic Applications;52
4.3.5;3.5 Conclusion;53
4.3.6;References;53
4.4;Chapter
4 Harmonic Continuation and Gravimetric Inversion of Gravity in Areas of Negative Geodetic Heights;55
4.4.1;4.1 Gravity Data Inversion/Interpretation;55
4.4.2;4.2 Regions of Negative Heights;56
4.4.3;4.3 RQE Approach;57
4.4.4;4.4 Reverting from RQE to RE Approach;58
4.4.5;4.5 Case Study;58
4.4.6;
Conclusion;59
4.4.7;References;59
4.5;Chapter
5 Results of the European Comparison of Absolute Gravimeters in Walferdange (Luxembourg) of November 2007;61
4.5.1;5.1 Introduction;61
4.5.2;5.2 Protocol;63
4.5.3;5.3 Data Processing;63
4.5.4;5.4 Adjustment of the Data;63
4.5.5;5.5 Conclusions;65
4.5.6;References;65
4.6;Chapter
6 Aerogravity Survey of the German Bight (North Sea);66
4.6.1;6.1 Introduction;66
4.6.2;6.2 The Aerogravity System;67
4.6.3;6.3 System Installation;68
4.6.4;6.4 Aerogravity Survey of the German Bight;68
4.6.5;6.5 Data Processing;68
4.6.6;6.6 Data Accuracy;71
4.6.7;6.7 Map of the Free-Air Gravity Anomalies;71
4.6.8;6.8 Summary and Further Work;73
4.6.9;References;75
4.7;Chapter 7 Results of the Seventh International Comparison of Absolute Gravimeters ICAG-20050at the Bureau International des Poids et Mesures, Sevres;76
4.7.1;7.1 Introduction;76
4.7.2;7.2 Absolute Measurements;77
4.7.3;7.3 Results of ICAG-2005;77
4.7.4;7.4 Conclusions;81
4.7.5;References;82
4.8;Chapter
8 Post-Newtonian Covariant Formulation for Gravity Determination by Differential Chronometry;83
4.8.1;8.1 Introduction;83
4.8.2;8.2 Mathematical Definitions;83
4.8.2.1;8.3.1 The World Function;83
4.8.2.2;8.2.2
Fermi Coordinates;84
4.8.3;8.3 Model Assumptions;84
4.8.4;8.4 Measurement Formulation for the Relative Distance;84
4.8.4.1;8.4.1
Procedure;85
4.8.5;8.5 Gravimetric Interpretation;85
4.8.6;8.6 Conclusions;86
4.8.7;References;86
4.9;Chapter
9 Robust and Efficient Weighted Least Squares Adjustment of Relative Gravity Data;87
4.9.1;9.1 Introduction;87
4.9.2;9.2 Least Squares Adjustment;88
4.9.3;9.3 Robust Estimates;88
4.9.4;9.4 Robust and Efficient Estimation;89
4.9.4.1;9.4.1
REWLSE Principle;89
4.9.4.2;9.4.2
REWLSE Adaptation to Gravimetric Data;89
4.9.5;9.5 Results and Comparison;90
4.9.6;9.6 Conclusions;92
4.9.7;References;93
4.10;Chapter
10 Comparison Between GPS Sea Surface Heights, MSS Models and Satellite Altimetry Data in the Aegean Sea. Implications for Local Geoid Improvement;94
4.10.1;10.1 Introduction;94
4.10.2;10.2 Processing of GPS Derived SSH Data;96
4.10.2.1;10.2.1
Along Track Filtering;96
4.10.2.2;10.2.2
Reduction of GPS Sea Surface Heights to MSL;96
4.10.2.3;10.2.3
Cross Over Adjustment;97
4.10.2.4;10.2.4
Gridding and Smoothing of Datasets;97
4.10.3;10.3 Comparisons with JASON-1 and ICESat Altimetry Data;97
4.10.4;10.4 Comparisons with Global and Local Geoid Models;99
4.10.5;10.5 Conclusions;99
4.10.6;References;100
4.11;Chapter
11 First Experience with the Transportable MPG-2 Absolute Gravimeter;101
4.11.1;11.1 Introduction;101
4.11.2;11.2 Setup;101
4.11.3;11.3 Experimental Results;103
4.11.3.1;11.3.1
Repeated Measurements;103
4.11.3.2;11.3.2
Results of Comparisons;103
4.11.3.3;11.3.3
Floor Recoil and Standard Uncertainty;104
4.11.4;11.4 Specifications and Terminology;105
4.11.5;11.5 Conclusions;106
4.11.6;References;107
4.12;Chapter 12 Absolute Gravimetry at BIPM, Sevres (France), at the Time of Dr. Akihiko Sakuma;108
4.12.1;12.1 Introduction;108
4.12.2;12.2 Absolute Gravity Measurementsat BIPM First Stage: 1888-1960;109
4.12.2.1;12.2.1
Pendulum Measurements;109
4.12.2.2;12.2.2
Free Fall;110
4.12.2.2.1;12.2.2.1
Charles Volet;110
4.12.2.2.2;12.2.2.2
Åke Thulin;110
4.12.3;12.3 Absolute Gravity at BIPM:Dr. Sakumas Work 1960-1996;111
4.12.3.1;12.3.1
Instruments;111
4.12.3.1.1;12.3.1.1
Sèvres Stationary Instrument;111
4.12.3.1.2;12.3.1.2
Portable Instruments;111
4.12.3.2;12.3.2
Scientific Achievements;113
4.12.3.2.1;12.3.2.1
Absolute Gravity Measurements at BIPM;113
4.12.3.2.2;12.3.2.2
International Comparisons at BIPM;114
4.12.4;12.4 Absolute Gravity at BIPM: Present and Future;115
4.12.5;References;116
4.13;Chapter
13 Correcting Strapdown GPS/INS Gravimetry Estimates with GPS Attitude Data;117
4.13.1;13.1 Introduction;117
4.13.2;13.2 Methodology;118
4.13.2.1;13.2.1
Strapdown Inertial Gravimetry;118
4.13.2.2;13.2.2
Kinematic Model;118
4.13.2.3;13.2.3
GPS Attitude Determination;119
4.13.3;13.3 Simulation Study;120
4.13.3.1;13.3.1
Data Simulation;120
4.13.3.2;13.3.2
Results;120
4.13.4;13.4 Test Flight;120
4.13.5;13.5 Summary and Outlook;122
4.13.6;References;124
4.14;Chapter
14 Gravity Measurements in Panama with the IMGC-02 Transportable Absolute Gravimeter;125
4.14.1;14.1 Introduction;125
4.14.2;14.2 The IMGC-02 Transportable Absolute Gravimeter;125
4.14.3;14.3 Logistics and Environmental Conditions;126
4.14.4;14.4 Results;128
4.14.5;14.5 Conclusion;129
4.14.6;References;129
4.15;Chapter
15 Comparison of Height Anomalies Determined from SLR, Absolute Gravimetry and GPS with High Frequency Borehole Data at Herstmonceux;130
4.15.1;15.1 Introduction;130
4.15.2;15.2 Site Description;130
4.15.3;15.3 Gravimeter Installation;131
4.15.3.1;15.3.1
FG-5 Drop-to-Drop Scatter at Herstmonceux;132
4.15.4;15.4 GPS and SLR Analysis;133
4.15.5;15.5 Discussion;133
4.15.6;15.6 Conclusions;135
4.15.7;References;136
4.16;Chapter
16 Vibration Rejection on Atomic Gravimeter Signal Using a Seismometer;137
4.16.1;16.1 Introduction;137
4.16.2;16.2 Experimental Set Up;138
4.16.3;16.3 Vibration Correction;139
4.16.3.1;16.3.1
Correlation Between Atomic and Seismometer Signals;139
4.16.3.2;16.3.2
Digital Filtering and Cross Coupling;140
4.16.4;16.4 Measurements Without Isolation;140
4.16.4.1;16.4.1
Finge Fitting;140
4.16.4.2;16.4.2
Lock Procedure;140
4.16.4.3;16.4.3
Results;141
4.16.5;16.5 Conclusion;143
4.16.6;References;143
4.17;Chapter
17 Gravity vs Pseudo-Gravity: A Comparison Based on Magnetic and Gravity Gradient Measurements;144
4.17.1;17.1 Introduction;144
4.17.2;17.2 Basic Theory;144
4.17.3;17.3 Data Comparisons;146
4.17.4;17.4 Conclusion;147
4.17.5;References;148
5;Part II Space-Borne Gravimetry: Present and Future;149
5.1;Chapter
18 Designing Earth Gravity Field Missions for the Future: A Case Study;150
5.1.1;18.1 Introduction;150
5.1.2;18.2 Mission Scenarios;151
5.1.3;18.3 Retrieval Experiments;152
5.1.3.1;18.3.1
Simulation Setup;153
5.1.3.2;18.3.2
Results;154
5.1.4;18.4 Conclusions and Outlook;156
5.1.5;References;156
5.2;Chapter
19 Regional Gravity Field Recovery from GRACE Using Position Optimized Radial Base Functions;158
5.2.1;19.1 Introduction;158
5.2.2;19.2 Data Processing;159
5.2.2.1;19.2.1
Line-of-Sight Gradiometry;160
5.2.2.2;19.2.2
Radial Base Functions;161
5.2.2.3;19.2.3
Optimization of the Parameters;161
5.2.2.4;19.2.4
Error Sources;162
5.2.3;19.3 Results;163
5.2.3.1;19.3.1
Simulation;163
5.2.3.2;19.3.2
Real GRACE Data;163
5.2.4;19.4 Conclusions;165
5.2.5;References;165
5.3;Chapter
20 External Calibration of SGG Observations on Accelerometer Level;166
5.3.1;20.1 Principles;166
5.3.2;20.2 The Inverse Calibration Matrix;167
5.3.3;20.3 Functional Models;167
5.3.3.1;20.3.1
Estimation with Parameters Approach;168
5.3.3.2;20.3.2
Estimation by Conditions Approach;168
5.3.3.3;20.3.3
Modified Conditions Approach;169
5.3.4;20.4 Calibration Results;169
5.3.4.1;20.4.1
Noise Analysis;169
5.3.4.2;20.4.2
Advanced Methods;170
5.3.5;20.5 Conclusions;172
5.3.6;References;172
5.4;Chapter
21 Covariance Propagation of Latitude-Dependent Orbit Errors Within the Energy Integral Approach;174
5.4.1;21.1 Introduction;174
5.4.2;21.2 Mathematical Formulation;174
5.4.3;21.3 Test Data Sets;176
5.4.4;21.4 Gravity Field Recovery;177
5.4.4.1;21.4.1
Simulation Results with White Noise Assumption;177
5.4.4.2;21.4.2
Simulation Results with Covariance Propagation;177
5.4.5;21.5 Conclusion;179
5.4.6;References;179
5.5;Chapter
22 Future Mission Design Options for Spatio-Temporal Geopotential Recovery;181
5.5.1;22.1 Introduction;181
5.5.2;22.2 Spatio-Temporal Sampling and the Heisenberg Sampling Rule;182
5.5.2.1;22.2.1
Single Sensor Missions;182
5.5.2.2;22.2.2
Multi-Sensor Missions;183
5.5.3;22.3 Simulations;183
5.5.4;22.4 Results;184
5.5.5;22.5 Discussion;187
5.5.6;References;187
5.6;Chapter
23 A Simulation Study Discussing the GRACE Baseline Accuracy;189
5.6.1;23.1 Introduction;189
5.6.2;23.2 Closed Loop Simulation;190
5.6.3;23.3 Observation Noise;191
5.6.4;23.4 Model Errors;192
5.6.5;23.5 Conclusions;193
5.6.6;References;194
5.7;Chapter 24 GRACE Gravity Field Determination Using the Celestial Mechanics Approach - First Results;195
5.7.1;24.1 Introduction;195
5.7.2;24.2 Celestial Mechanics Approach;196
5.7.2.1;24.2.1
Observation Model;196
5.7.2.2;24.2.2
A Priori Orbit Generation;196
5.7.2.3;24.2.3
Daily Normal Equations from Positions;197
5.7.2.4;24.2.4
Daily Normal Equations from ll-SST;197
5.7.3;24.3 Error-Free Simulation;197
5.7.4;24.4 Processing Real Data;198
5.7.4.1;24.4.1
Data Weighting;198
5.7.4.2;24.4.2
Background Modeling;199
5.7.4.2.1;24.4.2.1
Ocean Tides;199
5.7.4.2.2;24.4.2.2
A Priori Information;200
5.7.4.2.3;24.4.2.3
Non-gravitational Accelerations;200
5.7.5;24.5 Validation with External Data;200
5.7.6;24.6 Conclusions;201
5.7.7;References;201
5.8;Chapter
25 Fast Variance Component Estimation in GOCE Data Processing;203
5.8.1;25.1 Introduction;203
5.8.2;25.2 VCE as Part of an Iterative Solver;205
5.8.3;25.3 Effect of Inaccuracies in the Weights;205
5.8.3.1;25.3.1
Effect of a Trace Error on the Weights;205
5.8.3.2;25.3.2
Effect of Insufficiently Converged Residuals on the Weights;207
5.8.3.3;25.3.3
Effect of Weight Errors on the Final Solution;207
5.8.4;25.4 Numerical Simulations;207
5.8.4.1;25.4.1
Convergence of the Trace Estimation;208
5.8.4.2;25.4.2
Convergency of Residuals;209
5.8.4.3;25.4.3
Overall Weight Convergence;209
5.8.4.4;25.4.4
Optimized Solution Strategy;210
5.8.5;25.5 Summary and Outlook;210
5.8.6;References;211
5.9;Chapter
26 Analysis of the Covariance Structure of the GOCE Space-Wise Solution with Possible Applications;212
5.9.1;26.1 Introduction;212
5.9.2;26.2 Study on the Structure of the Error Covariance Matrix;213
5.9.2.1;26.2.1
Correlation Between Single Coefficients;213
5.9.2.2;26.2.2
Correlation Between Blocks of Coefficients;214
5.9.3;26.3 Study of Optimal Model Combinations;215
5.9.3.1;26.3.1
Combination Based on Error Degree Variances;215
5.9.3.2;26.3.2
Combination Based on Error Variances of the Single Coefficients;216
5.9.3.3;26.3.3
Combination Based on Block-Wise Error Covariances;217
5.9.3.4;26.3.4
Optimal Combination in a Bayesian Sense;218
5.9.3.5;26.3.5
Accuracy of the Combined Models;218
5.9.4;26.4 Conclusions;218
5.9.5;References;219
6;Part III Earth Observation by Satellite Altimetry and InSAR;220
6.1;Chapter
27 Soil Surface Moisture From EnviSat RA-2: From Modelling Towards Implementation;221
6.1.1;27.1 Introduction;221
6.1.2;27.2 Data;221
6.1.3;27.3 Sigma0 Variation from Envisat Ku Band;221
6.1.4;27.4 Creation of Empirical Sigma0 Models;223
6.1.5;27.5 The Simpson Desert 24-28S, 135-139E;224
6.1.6;27.6 The Congo 4S-4N, 16-26E;224
6.1.7;27.7 Understanding Sigma0;224
6.1.8;27.8 Modelling Moisture Response for Western Australia (22-32S116-128E);226
6.1.9;27.9 Discussion;226
6.1.10;References;228
6.2;Chapter
28 An Enhanced Ocean and Coastal Zone Retracking Technique for Gravity Field Computation;229
6.2.1;28.1 Introduction;229
6.2.2;28.2 Waveform Shape Analysis;229
6.2.3;28.3 Retracking;233
6.2.4;28.4 Regional Study;234
6.2.5;28.5 Burst Echoes;234
6.2.6;28.6 Discussion;236
6.2.7;References;236
6.3;Chapter
29 Measurement of Inland Surface Water from Multi-mission Satellite Radar Altimetry: Sustained Global Monitoring for Climate Change;237
6.3.1;29.1 Introduction;237
6.3.2;29.2 Global Analysis;237
6.3.3;29.3 Example Systems and Analysis;239
6.3.3.1;29.3.1
Mekong River;239
6.3.3.2;29.3.2
Amazon Basin Validation;240
6.3.4;29.4 Near-Real-Time Measurements;240
6.3.4.1;29.4.1
Target Analysis;241
6.3.4.2;29.4.2
Statistical Analysis;242
6.3.5;29.5 Burst Echoes;243
6.3.6;29.6 Discussion;244
6.3.7;References;245
6.4;Chapter
30 ACE2: The New Global Digital Elevation Model;246
6.4.1;30.1 Introduction;246
6.4.2;30.2 Topography;246
6.4.3;30.3 Global Comparison;247
6.4.4;30.4 Data Fusion;250
6.4.5;30.5 ACE2 Characteristics;250
6.4.6;30.5 ACE2 Characteristics;251
6.4.7;30.6 Discussion;251
6.4.8;References;251
6.5;Chapter
31 Ocean Dynamic Topography from GPS 0 Galathea-3 First Results;253
6.5.1;31.1 Introduction;253
6.5.2;31.2 GPS Observations of Ocean Dynamic Topography;254
6.5.3;31.3 GPS Antenna Height Determination;254
6.5.4;31.4 Determining the Mean Dynamic Topography;255
6.5.5;31.5 First Results;257
6.5.6;31.6 Outlook;258
6.5.7;References;258
6.6;Chapter
32 Filtering of Altimetric Sea Surface Heights with a Global Approach;260
6.6.1;32.1 Introduction;260
6.6.2;32.2 Generation of a
Global Surface;261
6.6.2.1;32.2.1
Polynomial Interpolation;262
6.6.2.2;32.2.2
Iterative Approach;262
6.6.3;32.3 Filtering;262
6.6.4;32.4 Numerical Results;263
6.6.5;32.5 Conclusions;264
6.6.6;References;264
6.7;Chapter
33 Coastal Sea Surface Heights from Improved Altimeter Data in the Mediterranean Sea;266
6.7.1;33.1 Introduction;266
6.7.2;33.2 Data and Methods;266
6.7.3;33.3 Results;267
6.7.3.1;33.3.1
Distance Analysis;267
6.7.3.2;33.3.2
Analysis of Data Rejections;267
6.7.3.3;33.3.3
Sea Level Comparisonat Tide Gauges;267
6.7.3.4;33.3.4
Re-tracking;270
6.7.4;33.4 Conclusions;270
6.7.5;References;273
6.8;Chapter
34 On Estimating the Dynamic Ocean Topography --A Profile Approach;275
6.8.1;34.1 Introduction;275
6.8.2;34.2 GRACE-Only Gravity Field Models;276
6.8.3;34.3 Satellite Altimetry Profiling the Sea Surface;277
6.8.4;34.4 The Profile Approach;277
6.8.5;34.5 Results;278
6.8.6;34.6 Validation;279
6.8.7;34.7 Conclusion;280
6.8.8;References;280
7;Part IV Geoid Modeling and Vertical Datums;282
7.1;Chapter
35 Evaluation of the Topographic Effect using the Various Gravity Reduction Methods for Precise Geoid Model in Korea;283
7.1.1;35.1 Introduction;283
7.1.2;35.2 Gravimetric Reduction Method;284
7.1.2.1;35.2.1
Theory of Gravimetric Geoid Solution;284
7.1.2.2;35.2.2
Gravimetric Reduction Methods;286
7.1.3;35.3 Comparison and Results;289
7.1.3.1;35.3.1
Gravimetric Geoid in Korea;289
7.1.3.2;35.3.2
Hybrid Geoid in Korea;289
7.1.4;35.4 Conclusions;291
7.1.5;References;291
7.2;Chapter
36 Analysis of Recent Global Geopotential Models Over the Croatian Territory;292
7.2.1;36.1 Introduction;292
7.2.2;36.2 Used Data;292
7.2.3;36.3 HVRS71 and TRIESTE Height Datum;293
7.2.4;36.4 HRG2000 National Geoid Model;293
7.2.5;36.5 Global Geopotential Models;294
7.2.6;36.6 Results;295
7.2.7;36.7 Conclusions;296
7.2.8;References;297
7.3;Chapter
37 On the Merging of Heterogeneous Height Data from SRTM, ICESat and Survey Control Monuments for Establishing Vertical Control in Greece: An Initial Assessment and Validation;298
7.3.1;37.1 Introduction;298
7.3.2;37.2 Study Area;299
7.3.3;37.3 SCM vs. SRTM Data Comparisons;299
7.3.4;37.4 ICESat vs. SRTM Data Comparisons;300
7.3.5;37.5 Conclusions;302
7.3.6;References;303
7.4;Chapter
38 Implementing a Dynamic Geoid as a Vertical Datum for Orthometric Heights in Canada;304
7.4.1;38.1 Introduction;304
7.4.2;38.2 Methodology;305
7.4.3;38.3 Description of Data;306
7.4.4;38.4 Analysis of Results;307
7.4.4.1;38.4.1
Case Study with Calibrated Diagonal Error Covariance Matrices;307
7.4.4.2;38.4.2
Case Study with Calibrated Fully-Populated Error Covariance Matrices;307
7.4.5;38.5 Conclusions and Recommendations;308
7.4.6;References;310
7.5;Chapter
39 Evaluation of the Quasigeoid Models EGG97 and EGG07 with GPS/levelling Data for the Territory of Bulgaria;312
7.5.1;39.1 Introduction;312
7.5.2;39.2 GPS/Levelling Data;312
7.5.3;39.3 Comparisons;313
7.5.3.1;39.3.1
The Comparison Statistics;313
7.5.4;References;315
7.6;Chapter
40 Combination Schemes for Local Orthometric Height Determination from GPS Measurements and Gravity Data;317
7.6.1;40.1 Introduction;317
7.6.2;40.2 The Integrated Approach;317
7.6.3;40.3 The Model Function Approach;318
7.6.4;40.4 A Hybrid Interpolation Approach;319
7.6.5;40.5 System Theory in Gravity Field Modeling;320
7.6.6;40.6 Conclusions;322
7.6.7;References;322
7.7;Chapter
41 EUVN0DA: Realization of the European Continental GPS/leveling Network;323
7.7.1;41.1 Introduction;323
7.7.2;41.2 EUVNDA: Densification of EUVN;324
7.7.3;41.3 Analysis of the GPS/Leveling Data;325
7.7.4;41.4 Towards the Combined European Height Reference Surface;326
7.7.5;41.5 Summary and Outlook;327
7.7.6;References;328
7.8;Chapter
42 Analysis of the Geopotential Anomalous Component at Brazilian Vertical Datum Region Based on the Imarui Lagoon System;329
7.8.1;42.1 Introduction;329
7.8.2;42.2 A General View of Vertical Datums Connection;330
7.8.3;42.3 A Test Approach for SST Determination at the BVD;330
7.8.4;42.4 Mean Lagoon Level (MLL);331
7.8.5;42.5 Data Analysis;332
7.8.5.1;42.5.1
Tidal Analysis;332
7.8.5.2;42.5.2
Geopotential Numbers and Heights;334
7.8.6;42.6 Final Remarks;334
7.8.7;References;335
7.9;Chapter
43 Preliminary Results of Spatial Modelling of GPS/Levelling Heights: A Local Quasi-Geoid/Geoid for the Lisbon Area;336
7.9.1;43.1 Introduction;336
7.9.2;43.2 Normal Heights and Height Anomalies;337
7.9.3;43.3 Interpolation Techniques;337
7.9.3.1;43.3.1
Inverse Power of Distance;338
7.9.3.2;43.3.2
Radial Basis Functions;338
7.9.3.3;43.3.3
Ordinary Kriging;338
7.9.3.4;43.4.4
Kriging with External Drift;338
7.9.4;43.4 Analysis and Conclusions;339
7.9.5;References;339
7.10;Chapter
44 Physical Heights Determination Using Modified Second Boundary Value Problem;340
7.10.1;44.1 Introduction;340
7.10.2;44.2 Mathematical Formulations;340
7.10.3;44.3 Practical Solutions;342
7.10.4;44.4 Conclusion;344
7.10.5;References;344
8;
Part V Regional Gravity Field Modeling;346
8.1;Chapter
45 Impact of the New GRACE-Derived Global Geopotential Model and SRTM Data on the Geoid Heights in Algeria;347
8.1.1;45.1 Introduction;347
8.1.2;45.2 The Used Data;348
8.1.2.1;45.2.1
Gravity Anomalies;348
8.1.2.2;45.2.2
Global Geopotential Model;348
8.1.2.3;45.2.3
Algerian Digital Elevation Model Based on SRTM Data;349
8.1.2.4;45.2.4
GPS/Levelling Data;349
8.1.3;45.3 Overview on the Gravimetric Geoid Models of Algeria;350
8.1.4;45.4 High-Resolution Geoid Computation;350
8.1.5;45.5 Comparison of All Gravimetric Geoid Models with GPS/Levelling Data;351
8.1.6;45.6 Conclusion;353
8.1.7;References;353
8.2;Chapter
46 On Modelling the Regional Distortions of the European Gravimetric Geoid EGG97 in Romania;354
8.2.1;46.1 Introduction;354
8.2.2;46.2 Numerical Realization;355
8.2.2.1;46.2.1
Input Data;355
8.2.2.2;46.2.2
Innovation Function Approach;355
8.2.2.3;46.2.3
Correction Surface Approach;357
8.2.3;46.3 Summary and Conclusions;358
8.2.4;References;358
8.3;Chapter 47 Effect of the Long-Wavelength Topographical Correction on the Low-Degree Earth's Gravity Field;360
8.3.1;47.1 Long-Wavelength Gravitational Field Generated by the Topography;360
8.3.2;47.2 Numerical Experiment;361
8.3.3;47.3 Conclusions;361
8.3.4;Appendix;364
8.3.5;References;365
8.4;Chapter
48 A Comparison of Various Integration Methods for Solving Newton0s Integral in Detailed Forward Modelling;366
8.4.1;48.1 Introduction;366
8.4.2;48.2 Integration Methods;366
8.4.2.1;48.2.1
Rectangular Prism Approach;367
8.4.2.2;48.2.2
Line Integral Approach;367
8.4.2.3;48.2.3
Gauss Cubature Approach;367
8.4.2.4;48.2.4
Linear Vertical Mass Approach;368
8.4.2.5;48.2.5
Point-Mass Approach;368
8.4.3;48.3 Numerical Experiment;368
8.4.4;48.4 Conclusions;371
8.4.5;References;372
8.5;Chapter
49 Further Improvements in the Determination of the Marine Geoid in Argentina by Employing Recent GGMs and Sea Surface Topography Models;374
8.5.1;49.1 Introduction;374
8.5.2;49.2 Computation Strategy and Results;375
8.5.3;49.3 Geoid Model Validation;377
8.5.4;49.4 Combined Solution;378
8.5.5;49.5 Conclusions-Future Plans;379
8.5.6;References;379
8.6;Chapter
50 Comparison of Various Topographic-Isostatic Effects in Terms of Smoothing Gradiometric Observations;381
8.6.1;50.1 Introduction;381
8.6.2;50.2 Topographic-Isostatic Effect;382
8.6.3;50.3 Downward Continuation;383
8.6.4;50.4 Results;383
8.6.5;50.5 Conclusions;385
8.6.6;References;385
8.6.6.1;Appendix;386
8.7;Chapter
51 Evaluation of Recent Global Geopotential Models in Argentina;387
8.7.1;51.1 1 Introduction;387
8.7.2;51.2 Study Area;387
8.7.3;51.3 Data Description;388
8.7.3.1;51.3.1
Terrestrial Data;388
8.7.3.2;51.3.2
Geopotential Models;388
8.7.4;51.4 Models Evaluation;389
8.7.5;51.5 Conclusions;390
8.7.6;References;392
8.8;Chapter
52 On the Determination of the Terrain Correction Using the Spherical Approach;393
8.8.1;52.1 Introduction;393
8.8.2;52.2 Problem of Negative Terrain Correction in Spherical Approach;394
8.8.3;52.3 Convergence of the Terrain Correction with Growing Distance from the Computation Point;396
8.8.4;52.4 Conclusions;398
8.8.5;References;399
8.9;Chapter
53 Smoothing Effect of the Topographical Correction on Various Types of the Gravity Anomalies;400
8.9.1;53.1 Introduction;400
8.9.2;53.2 Numerical Experiment;400
8.9.3;53.3 Conclusions;408
8.9.4;References;408
8.10;Chapter
54 Determination of a Gravimetric Geoid Model of Greece Using the Method of KTH;409
8.10.1;54.1 Introduction;409
8.10.2;54.2 Geoid Determination Based on the Least-Squares Modification of Stokes Formula;410
8.10.2.1;54.2.1
Modification of Stokes' Formula;410
8.10.2.2;54.2.2
Models for Signal and Noise Degree Variances;411
8.10.2.3;54.2.3
Additive Corrections in the KTH Approach;412
8.10.3;54.3 Geoid Computation;412
8.10.4;54.4 Evaluation of the Gravimetric Geoid Model;414
8.10.5;54.5 Concluding Remarks;415
8.10.6;References;415
8.11;Chapter
55 Method to Compute the Vertical Deflection Components;416
8.11.1;55.1 Introduction;416
8.11.2;55.2 Getting the VDCs;417
8.11.2.1;55.2.1
Spherical Harmonics (Legendre Polynomials);417
8.11.2.2;55.2.2
Attraction of Fictitious Masses;417
8.11.2.3;55.2.3
Direct Integrating of Gravity Anomalies;418
8.11.2.4;55.2.4
The Contribution of Far Zones;418
8.11.3;55.3 Test Results;419
8.11.4;55.4 Conclusions;419
8.11.5;References;420
8.12;Chapter
56 On Finite Element and Finite Volume Methods and Their Application in Regional Gravity Field Modeling;422
8.12.1;56.1 Introduction;422
8.12.2;56.2 Formulation of the Mixed GBVP;422
8.12.3;56.3 Solution of the Mixed GBVP by FEM;423
8.12.4;56.4 Numerical Experiments by FEM;424
8.12.5;56.5 Solution of the Mixed GBVP by FVM;424
8.12.5.1;56.5.1
Numerical Scheme on Spherical Rectangular Grid;426
8.12.6;56.6 Numerical Experiments by FVM;426
8.12.7;56.7 Conclusions;427
8.12.8;References;427
8.13;Chapter
57 Quasi-Geoid of New Caledonia: Computation,Results and Analysis;428
8.13.1;57.1 Introduction;428
8.13.2;57.2 Preparation and Validation of Gravity Data;429
8.13.2.1;57.2.1
Preparation of DTM (Digital Terrain Models);429
8.13.2.2;57.2.2
Validation of Marine Gravity Data;430
8.13.2.3;57.2.3
Validation of Terrestrial Gravity Data;430
8.13.3;57.3 Computation of Quasi-Geoid;431
8.13.3.1;57.3.1
Quick Explanation of the Computation;431
8.13.3.2;57.3.2
Test of FFT (Fast Fourier Transform) Strategy to Compute Stokes Integral;431
8.13.3.3;57.3.3
Evaluation of the Quality of Geoid Model and Computation of a Grid to Convert Ellipsoidal Heights into Altitudes;432
8.13.3.4;57.3.4
Differences and Improvement Compared to Former Quasi-Geoid Determinations;433
8.13.4;57.4 Analysing the Difference Between the Geoid and the Mean Sea Level Measured at Tide Gauges;435
8.13.4.1;57.4.1
Context and Main Issues;435
8.13.4.2;57.4.2
Correlation with the Temperature;435
8.13.4.3;57.4.3
Possible Correlation with Oceanic Currents;435
8.13.5;57.5 Conclusion;436
8.13.6;References;436
8.14;Chapter
58 Assessment of a Numerical Method for Computing the Spherical Harmonic Coefficients of the Gravitational Potential of a Constant Density Polyhedron;437
8.14.1;58.1 Introduction;437
8.14.2;58.2 Algorithm;438
8.14.3;58.3 Assessment;439
8.14.3.1;58.3.1
Case of Non Horizontal Faces;440
8.14.3.2;58.3.2
Precision in Coefficient Computation;441
8.14.3.3;58.3.3
Divergence Control;441
8.14.4;58.4 Conclusions;442
8.14.5;References;443
8.15;Chapter
59 Improving Gravity Field Modelling in the German-Danish Border Region by Combining Airborne, Satellite and Terrestrial Gravity Data;444
8.15.1;59.1 Motivation;444
8.15.2;59.2 Survey Description;445
8.15.3;59.3 Data Processing and Validation;445
8.15.4;59.4 Results and Discussion;447
8.15.5;59.5 Conclusions;449
8.15.6;References;449
8.16;Chapter
60 An Inverse Gravimetric Problem with GOCE Data;450
8.16.1;60.1 The Problem and Proposed Solution;450
8.16.2;60.2 Results of Numerical Experiments;452
8.16.3;60.3 Conclusions and Future Works;454
8.16.4;References;455
9;Part VI Global Gravity Field Modeling and EGMO8;456
9.1;Chapter
61 Assessment of the EGM2008 Gravity Field in Algeria Using Gravity and GPS/Levelling Data;457
9.1.1;61.1 Introduction;457
9.1.2;61.2 Global Geopotential Model;458
9.1.3;61.3 Data Used;458
9.1.3.1;61.3.1
Gravity Data;458
9.1.3.2;61.3.2
GPS/Levelling Data;459
9.1.3.3;61.3.3
Algerian Gravimetric Geoid Model;459
9.1.4;61.4 Evaluation of the EGM2008;460
9.1.4.1;61.4.1
Comparison with Free Gravity Anomalies;460
9.1.4.2;61.4.2
Comparison with GPS/Levelling Data;461
9.1.4.3;61.4.3
Comparison with Gravimetric Geoid Model;461
9.1.5;61.5 Comparisons Up to Degree 2,190 and Order 2,159;461
9.1.6;61.6 Conclusion;463
9.1.7;References;463
9.2;Chapter
62 On High-Resolution Global Gravity Field Modelling by Direct BEM Using DNSC08;465
9.2.1;62.1 Introduction;465
9.2.2;62.2 Direct BEM for the Linearized FGBVP;465
9.2.3;62.3 Numerical Experiment;466
9.2.4;62.4 Results and Discussion;467
9.2.5;References;470
9.3;Chapter
63 Is Australian Data Really Validating EGM2008, or Is EGM2008 Just in/Validating Australian Data?;471
9.3.1;63.1 Introduction;471
9.3.2;63.2 Description of Australian Data;471
9.3.2.1;63.2.1
Australian Gravity Data;471
9.3.2.2;63.2.2
Australian GPS-Levelling Data;472
9.3.2.3;63.2.3
Australian Vertical Deflection Data;472
9.3.2.4;63.2.4
AUSGeoid98;472
9.3.3;63.3 Results;472
9.3.3.1;63.3.1
Comparisons with Australian Gravity;472
9.3.3.2;63.3.2
Comparisons with AUSGeoid98;473
9.3.3.3;63.3.3
Comparisons with GPS-Levelling;475
9.3.3.4;63.3.4
Comparisons with Vertical Deflections;476
9.3.4;63.4 Conclusion;477
9.3.5;References;477
9.4;Chapter
64 Evaluation of EGM08 Using GPS and Leveling Heightsin Greece;478
9.4.1;64.1 Introduction;478
9.4.2;64.2 Data Sets;479
9.4.2.1;64.2.1
Ellipsoidal Heights (HEPOS Project);479
9.4.2.2;64.2.2
Orthometric Heights;480
9.4.2.3;64.2.3
GPS-Based Geoid Undulations;480
9.4.2.4;64.2.4
GGM-Based Geoid Undulations;480
9.4.2.5;64.2.5
Height Statistics;481
9.4.3;64.3 Pointwise Tests;482
9.4.4;64.4 Baseline Tests;484
9.4.5;64.5 Conclusions;485
9.4.6;References;485
9.5;Chapter
65 Validation of the New Earth Gravitational Model EGM08 Over the Baltic Countries;486
9.5.1;65.1 Introduction;486
9.5.2;65.2 Target Area;487
9.5.3;65.3 Comparisons with a Regional High-Resolution Geoid Model BALTgeoid-04;487
9.5.3.1;65.3.1
Regional BALTgeoid-04 Model;487
9.5.3.2;65.3.2
Accounting for the Differences Between the EGM and GRS-80 Parameters;488
9.5.3.3;65.3.3
The EGM08-Derived Height Anomalies;488
9.5.3.4;65.3.4
The Results;489
9.5.4;65.4 Comparisons with the Terrestrial Data;490
9.5.5;65.5 Comparisons with GPS-Levelling Data;491
9.5.6;65.6 Summary and Conclusions;492
9.5.7;References;493
9.6;Chapter
66 Evaluation of EGM2008 by Comparison with Global and Local Gravity Solutions from CH494
9.6.1;66.1 Introduction;494
9.6.2;66.2 Data Processing;494
9.6.2.1;66.2.1
Global Gravity Field Recovery;495
9.6.2.2;66.2.2
Local Refinement with Slepian functions;496
9.6.2.2.1;66.2.2.1
An Empirical Localising Base Function;496
9.6.2.2.2;66.3.2.2 Proof of Concept;497
9.6.3;66.3 Validation Results;498
9.6.3.1;66.3.1
Global Comparisons;498
9.6.3.2;66.3.2
Local Comparison;499
9.6.4;66.4 Conclusions;500
9.6.5;References;500
9.7;Chapter
67 Testing EGM2008 on Leveling Data from Scandinavia, Adjacent Baltic Areas, and Greenland;502
9.7.1;67.1 Introduction;502
9.7.2;67.2 Scandinavia and Adjacent Areas;502
9.7.3;67.3 Greenland;504
9.7.4;67.4 Conclusions;506
9.7.5;References;506
9.8;Chapter
68 Least Squares, Galerkin and BVPs Applied to the Determination of Global Gravity Field Models;507
9.8.1;68.1 Introduction;507
9.8.2;68.2 LS Approach for Data at Ground Level and Satellite Coefficients;508
9.8.3;68.3 From Least Squares to Galerkin;509
9.8.4;68.4 Comparison with Pull-Back and Downward Continuation Procedures;511
9.8.5;68.5 Some Conclusions and Open Issues;513
9.8.6;References;513
10;Part VII Temporal Gravity Changes and Geodynamics;514
10.1;Chapter
69 Terrestrial Water Storage from GRACE and Satellite Altimetry in the Okavango Delta (Botswana);515
10.1.1;69.1 Introduction;515
10.1.2;69.2 The HYDROGRAV Project;516
10.1.3;69.3 Preliminary Results for the Okavango Delta;516
10.1.3.1;69.3.1
Annual TWS Variations;517
10.1.3.2;69.3.2
Inter-Annual TWS Variations;518
10.1.4;69.4 Summary;518
10.1.5;References;519
10.2;Chapter
70 Greenland Ice Sheet Mass Loss from GRACE Monthly Models;521
10.2.1;70.1 Introduction;521
10.2.2;70.2 Data and Methods;522
10.2.2.1;70.2.1
Gravity Disturbance Trend;522
10.2.2.2;70.2.2
Post-Glacial Rebound;522
10.2.2.3;70.2.3
Inversion Method;523
10.2.3;70.3 Mass Change Results;524
10.2.4;70.4 Conclusion;525
10.2.5;References;525
10.3;Chapter 71 Water Level Temporal Variation Analysis at Solimoes and Amazonas Rivers;527
10.3.1;71.1 Introduction;527
10.3.2;71.2 Ocean-Atmosphere Interactions;528
10.3.3;71.3 Orthometric Height of the Water Surface;529
10.3.3.1;71.3.1
Data -- GPS Data Over Bench Marks;529
10.3.3.2;71.3.2
Methodology;529
10.3.4;71.4 Results and Discussion;529
10.3.5;71.5 Conclusions;531
10.3.6;References;532
10.4;Chapter
72 Spatiotemporal Analysis of the GRACE-Derived Mass Variations in North America by Means of Multi-Channel Singular Spectrum Analysis;533
10.4.1;72.1 Introduction;533
10.4.2;72.2 Methodology;533
10.4.3;72.3 Description of Data Sets;534
10.4.3.1;72.3.1
GRACE Data;534
10.4.3.2;72.3.2
Continental Water Storage Models;535
10.4.4;72.4 Analysis of Results;535
10.4.4.1;72.4.1
Analysis of Simulated Spatiotemporal Data;535
10.4.4.2;72.4.2
Analysis of Water Mass Variations;536
10.4.4.3;72.4.3
Analysis of GIA Deformation Signal;537
10.4.5;72.5 Conclusions;538
10.4.6;References;539
10.5;Chapter
73 Analysing Five Years of GRACE Equivalent Water Height Variations Using the Principal Component Analysis;541
10.5.1;73.1 Introduction;541
10.5.2;73.2 Data and Methodology;542
10.5.2.1;73.2.1
GRACE Data Used;542
10.5.2.2;73.2.2
The Principal Component Analysis;542
10.5.3;73.3 Interpretation of the Results;543
10.5.3.1;73.3.1
RMS and Linear Trend;543
10.5.3.2;73.3.2
PCA Results;544
10.5.4;73.4 Conclusions;547
10.5.5;References;549
10.6;Chapter
74 Observed Gravity Change at Syowa Station Induced by Antarctic Ice Sheet Mass Change;550
10.6.1;74.1 Introduction;550
10.6.2;74.2 Estimation of Gravity Residuals;550
10.6.2.1;74.2.1
Observation;551
10.6.2.2;74.2.2
Data Processing;551
10.6.3;74.3 Estimation of Gravity Change Associated with Antarctic Ice Sheet Mass Change;551
10.6.3.1;74.3.1
Topography Change and Reduction to Mass Change;551
10.6.3.2;74.3.2
Calculation of Expected Gravity Change;552
10.6.4;74.4 Comparisons of Observed Gravity Residuals with Expected Gravity Changes;553
10.6.5;74.5 Summary;554
10.6.6;References;555
10.7;Chapter
75 Evaluation of GRACE and ICESat Mass Change Estimates Over Antarctica;556
10.7.1;75.1 Introduction;556
10.7.2;75.2 GRACE;557
10.7.2.1;75.2.1
Glacial Isostatic Adjustment;557
10.7.2.2;75.2.2 The Influence
of C20 ;557
10.7.2.3;75.2.3
Geocenter Motion;558
10.7.3;75.3
ICESat;559
10.7.3.1;75.3.1
Campaign Bias Correction;559
10.7.3.2;75.3.2
Firn Density;560
10.7.3.3;75.3.3
Repeat Track Versus Crossover;560
10.7.4;75.4 Mass Change Estimates;561
10.7.5;75.5 Summary;561
10.7.6;References;562
10.8;Chapter
76 Baltic Sea Mass Variations from GRACE: Comparison with In Situ and Modelled Sea Level Heights;563
10.8.1;76.1 Introduction;563
10.8.2;76.2 Data and Processing;564
10.8.2.1;76.2.1
GRACE Mass Variation;564
10.8.2.2;76.2.2
Baltic Sea Variation;564
10.8.2.3;76.2.3
Continental Hydrology;566
10.8.3;76.3 Results;566
10.8.4;76.4 Discussion;567
10.8.5;References;568
10.9;Chapter
77 Water Storage in Africa from the Optimised GRACE Monthly Models: Iterative Approach;570
10.9.1;77.1 Introduction;570
10.9.2;77.2 Methodology on the Optimal Filter Design;571
10.9.3;77.3 Procedure;571
10.9.4;77.4 Hydrological Modeling;572
10.9.5;77.5 Results;572
10.9.6;77.6 Conclusions;576
10.9.7;References;576
10.10;Chapter
78 Estimating Sub-Monthly Global Mass Transport Signals Using GRACE, GPS and OBP Data Sets;578
10.10.1;78.1 Introduction;578
10.10.2;78.2 Data Sets;579
10.10.2.1;78.2.1
GRACE Weekly Data;579
10.10.2.2;78.2.2
GPS Station Positions;579
10.10.2.3;78.2.3
Ocean Bottom Pressure Estimations;580
10.10.3;78.3 Analysis Method;581
10.10.4;78.4 Results;581
10.10.4.1;78.4.1
Formal Error Propagation;581
10.10.4.2;78.4.2
Regional Averages;582
10.10.4.3;78.4.3 Degree 1 and the C2,0 Coefficient;582
10.10.5;78.5 Conclusions;583
10.10.6;References;584
10.11;Chapter
79 Regular Gravity Field Variations and Mass Transport in the Earth System from DEOS Models Based on GRACE Satellite Data;585
10.11.1;79.1 Introduction;585
10.11.2;79.2 Secular Trends;586
10.11.3;79.3 Seasonal Variations;587
10.11.4;79.4 Selected Time Series;589
10.11.5;79.5 Conclusions;591
10.11.6;References;592
10.12;Chapter
80 Estimating GRACE Monthly Water Storage ChangeConsistent with Hydrology by AssimilatingHydrological Information;593
10.12.1;80.1 Hydrology and GRACE;593
10.12.2;80.2 Data and Methodology;594
10.12.2.1;80.2.1
Data;594
10.12.2.2;80.2.2
Sequential Estimation and Data Assimilation;595
10.12.3;80.3 Stochastics of the Data;595
10.12.4;80.4 Results and Discussion;596
10.12.4.1;80.4.1Hydrology-
Constrained Solutions;596
10.12.4.2;80.4.2
Contribution of Hydrological Constraints;597
10.12.4.3;80.4.3
Impact of Covariance Matrix Structure;598
10.12.4.4;80.5.4 Discussion;598
10.12.5;80.5 Summary and Outlook;599
10.12.6;References;599
10.13;Chapter 81 Secular Geoid Rate from GRACE for Vertical Datum Modernization;601
10.13.1;81.1 Introduction;601
10.13.2;81.2 Methodology;602
10.13.3;81.3 Tailoring the Filter;604
10.13.4;81.4 Discussion;604
10.13.5;References;606
10.14;Chapter
82 Ten-Day Gravity Field Solutions Inferred from GRACE Data;608
10.14.1;82.1 Introduction;608
10.14.2;82.2 Processing Strategy;609
10.14.2.1;82.2.1
GRACE: Background Models and Parameterization;609
10.14.2.2;82.2.2
LAGEOS;609
10.14.2.3;82.2.3
Ten-Day Gravity Field Solutions;609
10.14.3;82.3 Results;610
10.14.4;82.4 Conclusions;611
10.14.5;References;612
11;Part VIII Earth Observation and the Global Geodetic Observing System (GGOS);613
11.1;Chapter
83 GGP (Global Geodynamics Project): An International Network of Superconducting Gravimeters to Study Time-Variable Gravity;614
11.1.1;83.1 GGP Stations;614
11.1.2;83.2 A Typical GGP Site;615
11.1.3;83.3 Performance of the SG;615
11.1.4;83.4 How GGP Functions;616
11.1.5;83.5 GGP and GGOS;618
11.1.5.1;83.5.1
AG and SG Observations;618
11.1.5.2;83.5.2
SG Drift;619
11.1.5.3;83.5.3
Hydrology Effects on Gravity;619
11.1.5.4;83.5.4
GGP and GRACE;621
11.1.6;83.6 Other GGP Projects;621
11.1.7;83.7 Conclusions;622
11.1.8;References;622
11.2;Chapter
84 Surface Mass Loading Estimates from GRACE and GPS;623
11.2.1;84.1 Introduction;623
11.2.2;84.2 Method;624
11.2.2.1;84.2.1
Smoothed equivalent water height grids;624
11.2.2.2;84.2.2
Singular Value Decomposition;624
11.2.3;84.3 Results;625
11.2.3.1;84.3.1
EOF Modes;625
11.2.3.2;84.3.2
Comparison to IGS Data;626
11.2.3.3;84.3.3
EOF Filter Residuals;626
11.2.4;84.4 Conclusions;627
11.2.5;References;627
11.3;Chapter
85 A Unified Approach to Modeling the Effects of Earthquakes on the Three Pillars of Geodesy;629
11.3.1;85.1 Introduction;629
11.3.2;85.2 A Unified Approach;630
11.3.2.1;85.2.1
Earthquake Displacement Field;630
11.3.2.2;85.2.2
Change in Shape;631
11.3.2.3;85.2.3
Change in Rotation;631
11.3.2.4;85.2.4
Change in Gravity;632
11.3.3;85.3 Discussion and Summary;634
11.3.4;References;634
11.4;Chapter
86 Modeling and Observation of Loading Contribution to Time-Variable GPS Sites Positions;636
11.4.1;86.1 Introduction;636
11.4.2;86.2 Modeling Loading Contributions;637
11.4.2.1;86.2.1
Atmospheric and Oceanic Loading;637
11.4.2.2;86.2.2
Hydrological Loading;639
11.4.3;86.3 Observations of GPS Sites Positions;639
11.4.3.1;86.3.1
Detection of the Loading Contribution to the Time-Variable GPS Position at Potsdam;639
11.4.3.2;86.3.2
Integration of the AOH Model Inside the GPS Analysis Software GAMIT at Potsdam;640
11.4.4;86.4 Integration of the AOH Loading Model: Comparison of Two GPS Solutions;641
11.4.4.1;86.4.1
Annual Variability Reduction in the Northern Hemisphere;642
11.4.4.2;86.4.2
Variability in the Southern Hemisphere;643
11.4.5;86.5 Conclusion;643
11.4.6;References;644
11.5;Chapter
87 Investigating the Effects of Earthquakes Using HEPOS;645
11.5.1;87.1 Introduction;645
11.5.2;87.2 Methodology Followed;646
11.5.2.1;87.2.1
Earthquakes Investigated;646
11.5.2.2;87.2.2
Selection of Reference Stations;646
11.5.2.3;87.2.3
Processing of GPS Data;647
11.5.3;87.3 Data Analysis;648
11.5.3.1;87.3.1
Comparing Processing Strategies;648
11.5.3.2;87.3.2
Investigation of Displacements;648
11.5.4;87.4 Conclusions Further Research;652
11.5.5;References;652
11.6;Chapter
88 Assessment of Degree-2 Zonal Gravitational Changes from GRACE, Earth Rotation, Climate Models, and Satellite Laser Ranging;653
11.6.1;88.1 Introduction;653
11.6.2;88.2 Data Processing;654
11.6.2.1;88.2.1
GRACE Solutions;654
11.6.2.2;88.2.2
C20 from LOD Observations;655
11.6.2.3;88.2.3C20
from Climate Models;655
11.6.2.4;88.2.4
SLR C20 Estimates;656
11.6.3;88.3 Comparisons of .C20 Estimates;656
11.6.4;88.4 Conclusions;657
11.6.5;88.5 Discussion;658
11.6.6;References;660
12;Part IX Geodetic Monitoring of Natural Hazards and a Changing Environment;661
12.1;Chapter
89 PALSAR InSAR Observation and Modeling of Crustal Deformation Due to the 2007 Chuetsu-Oki Earthquake in Niigata, Japan;662
12.1.1;89.1 Introduction;662
12.1.2;89.2 Data and Processing;662
12.1.3;89.3 Observation Results;663
12.1.4;89.4 Modeling Results and Discussion;663
12.1.5;References;669
12.2;Chapter
90 On the Accuracy of LiDAR Derived Digital Surface Models;671
12.2.1;90.1 Introduction;671
12.2.2;90.2 Description of Data;672
12.2.2.1;90.2.1
Removal of Non-planar Points;672
12.2.2.2;90.2.2
Interpolation of LiDAR Points;673
12.2.3;90.3 Assessment of Absolute Vertical Accuracy of LiDAR Data;673
12.2.4;90.4 Assessment of Relative Vertical Accuracy of LiDAR Data;674
12.2.5;90.5 Improving the Interpolation Performance in Areas with Occlusions;675
12.2.6;90.6 Conclusions;676
12.2.7;References;676
12.3;Chapter
91 Multiscale Segmentation of Polarimetric SAR Data Using Pauli Analysis Images;678
12.3.1;91.1 Introduction;678
12.3.2;91.2 Segmentation Approach;678
12.3.2.1;91.2.1
Pauli Analysis Method;678
12.3.2.2;91.2.2
Speckle Removing;679
12.3.2.3;91.2.3
New Segmentation Method;679
12.3.2.3.1;91.2.3.1
First Segmentation Level;680
12.3.2.3.2;91.3.3.2
Second Segmentation Level;680
12.3.2.3.3;91.3.3.3 Third Segmentation Level;680
12.3.3;91.3 Conclusions;681
12.3.4;References;682