Miller / Tillman Combustion Engineering Issues for Solid Fuel Systems

1. Auflage 2008
ISBN: 978-0-08-055805-9
Verlag: Elsevier Science & Techn.
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 528 Seiten, Web PDF

Design, construct and utilize fuel systems using this comprehensive reference work. Combustion Engineering Issues for Solid Fuel Systems combines modeling, policy/regulation and fuel properties with cutting edge breakthroughs in solid fuel combustion for electricity generation and industrial applications. This book moves beyond theory to provide readers with real-life experiences and tips for addressing the various technical, operational and regulatory issues that are associated with the use of fuels. With the latest information on CFD modeling and emission control technologies, Combustion Engineering Issues for Solid Fuel Systems is the book practicing engineers as well as managers and policy makers have been waiting for.
• Provides the latest information on CFD modeling and emission control technologies
• Comprehensive coverage of combustion systems and fuel types
• Addresses policy and regulatory concerns at a technical level
• Tackles various technical and operational issues

Mr. Miller (B.S. and M.S. Chemical Engineering) has more than 30 years' experience in energy research and development, combustion systems, fuels characterization, preparation and handling, hardware development and testing, and emissions characterization and control. He has been PI or co-PI of over $44 M in sponsored research. He is the author of four books published by Elsevier

Autoren/Hrsg.

Miller, Bruce G.

Tillman, David

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Front Cover;1
2;Combustion Engineering Issues for Solid Fuels;4
3;Copyright Page;5
4;Dedication Page;6
5;Contents;8
6;Preface;20
7;List of Authors;24
8;Chapter 1: Introduction;26
8.1;1.1 Overview;26
8.1.1;1.1.1 A Perspective on Solid Fuel Utilization;27
8.1.2;1.1.2 Fuels and Combustion Technology Development;29
8.2;1.2 Solid Fuels Used in Electricity Generation and Process Industry Applications;30
8.2.1;1.2.1 Characteristics of Solid Fuels;30
8.2.2;1.2.2 Some Economic Considerations of Solid Fuels;33
8.3;1.3 The Combustion Process for Solid Fuels;36
8.3.1;1.3.1 Combustion Mechanism Overview;37
8.3.2;1.3.2 Heating and Drying;37
8.3.3;1.3.3 Pyrolysis or Devolatilization;40
8.3.4;1.3.4 Volatile Oxidation Reactions;43
8.3.5;1.3.5 Char Oxidation Reactions;44
8.3.6;1.3.6 Formation of Airborne Emissions;46
8.3.7;1.3.7 Reactions of Inorganic Matter;47
8.3.8;1.3.8 Combustion and Heat Release;49
8.4;1.4 The Combustion System;51
8.4.1;1.4.1 Fuel Quality and Fuel Management;51
8.4.2;1.4.2 Fuel Preparation;52
8.4.3;1.4.3 Burners and the Combustion Systems;53
8.4.4;1.4.4 Post-Combustion Controls;54
8.5;1.5 Organization of This Book;55
8.6;1.6 References;55
9;Chapter 2: Coal Characteristics;58
9.1;2.1 Introduction to Coal;58
9.1.1;2.1.1 Coal Formation and Coalification;59
9.2;2.2 Coal Classification;62
9.2.1;2.2.1 Coal Rank;62
9.2.2;2.2.2 Coal Type;63
9.2.3;2.2.3 Coal Grade;66
9.2.4;2.2.4 Coal Classification;66
9.2.4.1;2.2.4.1 ASTM Classification System;66
9.2.4.2;2.2.4.2 International Classification System;66
9.3;2.3 Coal Reserves/Resources;69
9.3.1;2.3.1 World Coal Reserves;69
9.3.2;2.3.2 United States Coal Resources and Reserves;72
9.4;2.4 Coal Production;73
9.4.1;2.4.1 World Coal Production;76
9.4.2;2.4.2 United States Coal Production;77
9.5;2.5 Traditional Coal Characterization Methods and Their Industrial Application;86
9.5.1;2.5.1 Proximate Analysis;94
9.5.2;2.5.2 Ultimate Analysis;95
9.5.3;2.5.3 Heating Value;95
9.5.4;2.5.4 Sulfur Forms;96
9.5.5;2.5.5 Chlorine;96
9.5.6;2.5.6 Grindability;96
9.5.7;2.5.7 Ash Composition;96
9.5.8;2.5.8 Trace Element Characterization;97
9.5.9;2.5.9 Ash Fusion;97
9.5.10;2.5.10 Free-Swelling Index (FSI);97
9.5.11;2.5.11 Petrography/Coal Reflectance;98
9.6;2.6 Nontraditional Characterization Methods and Their Industrial Application;98
9.6.1;2.6.1 Coal Structure;99
9.6.2;2.6.2 Coal Reactivity;99
9.6.3;2.6.3 Volatile Matter Evolution Patterns;102
9.7;2.7 References;105
10;Chapter 3: Characteristics of Alternative Fuels;108
10.1;3.1 Introduction;108
10.1.1;3.1.1 Typical Alternative Fuel Applications;109
10.1.1.1;3.1.1.1 The Use of Alternative Fuels in Electric Utility Boilers;109
10.1.1.2;3.1.1.2 Cofiring Alternative Fuels in Process Industries and Independent Power Producers;111
10.2;3.2 Petroleum Coke;112
10.2.1;3.2.1 Petroleum Coke Production Processes;113
10.2.2;3.2.2 Fuel Characteristics of Petroleum Coke;113
10.2.2.1;3.2.2.1 Proximate and Ultimate Analysis of Petroleum Coke;114
10.2.2.2;3.2.2.2 Ash Characteristics of Petroleum Coke;115
10.2.3;3.2.3 Petroleum Coke Utilization in Cyclone Boilers;117
10.2.4;3.2.4 Cofiring Petroleum Coke in Pulverized Coal Boilers;118
10.2.5;3.2.5 Petroleum Coke Utilization in Fluidized-Bed Boilers;119
10.3;3.3 Woody Biomass;121
10.3.1;3.3.1 Types of Woody Biomass Fuels;123
10.3.2;3.3.2 Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Woody Biomass Fuels;124
10.3.2.1;3.3.2.1 Proximate and Ultimate Analysis of Woody Biomass;125
10.3.2.2;3.3.2.2 Inorganic Matter in Woody Biomass;125
10.3.2.3;3.3.2.3 Trace Metal Concentrations;126
10.3.3;3.3.3 Using Woody Biomass in Dedicated Boilers;127
10.3.4;3.3.4 Woody Biomass in Pulverized Coal Firing Applications;131
10.3.5;3.3.5 Cofiring Woody Biomass in Cyclone Boilers;132
10.3.6;3.3.6 Conclusions Regarding Using Woody Biomass as an Alternative Fuel;133
10.4;3.4 Tire-Derived Fuel (TDF);135
10.4.1;3.4.1 General Description of Tire-Derived Fuel;136
10.4.2;3.4.2 Fuel Characteristics of Tire-Derived Fuel;137
10.4.2.1;3.4.2.1 Proximate and Ultimate Analysis of Tire-Derived Fuel;137
10.4.2.2;3.4.2.2 Ash Constituents of TDF;138
10.4.2.3;3.4.2.3 Trace Element Emissions from TDF;139
10.4.3;3.4.3 Cofiring Applications with Tire-Derived Fuel;139
10.4.4;3.4.4 Summary Regarding TDF as an Alternative Fuel;140
10.5;3.5 Herbaceous Crops;141
10.5.1;3.5.1 Types of Herbaceous Biomass Fuels;141
10.5.2;3.5.2 Sources and Uses of Herbaceous Materials;142
10.5.3;3.5.3 Fuel Characteristics of Switchgrass and Related Agricultural Biomass Materials;143
10.5.3.1;3.5.3.1 Density of Switchgrass and Related Materials;143
10.5.3.2;3.5.3.2 Proximate and Ultimate Analysis of Switchgrass and Related Agricultural Materials;144
10.5.3.3;3.5.3.3 Ash Chemistry for Herbaceous Biomass Fuels;146
10.5.4;3.5.4 Herbaceous Crop Summary;148
10.6;3.6 References;149
11;Chapter 4: Characteristics and Behavior of Inorganic Constituents;158
11.1;4.1 Introduction;158
11.2;4.2 Inorganic Composition of Coal;161
11.2.1;4.2.1 Distribution of Inorganic Constituents in Coal;161
11.2.2;4.2.2 Methods of Determining Inorganic Composition;162
11.2.3;4.2.3 General Coal Characteristics;173
11.2.3.1;4.2.3.1 Lignites;173
11.2.3.2;4.2.3.2 Subbituminous Coals;173
11.2.3.3;4.2.3.3 Bituminous Coals;174
11.2.3.4;4.2.3.4 World-Traded Coals;175
11.3;4.3 Ash Formation: Transformation of Coal Inorganic Constituents;176
11.4;4.4 Ash Deposition Formation;178
11.4.1;4.4.1 Deposition Phenomena in Utility Boilers;178
11.4.2;4.4.2 Slagging Deposits;180
11.4.3;4.4.3 Fouling Deposits;181
11.4.4;4.4.4 High-Temperature Fouling;182
11.4.5;4.4.5 Low-Temperature Fouling;183
11.4.6;4.4.6 Ash Impacts on SCR Catalyst;184
11.4.7;4.4.7 Deposit Thermal Properties;185
11.5;4.5 Deposit Strength Development;186
11.6;4.6 Deposit Characterization;187
11.7;4.7 Predicting Ash Behavior;192
11.7.1;4.7.1 Advanced Indices;192
11.7.2;4.7.2 Mechanistic Models;192
11.8;4.8 References;192
12;Chapter 5: Fuel Blending for Combustion Management;196
12.1;5.1 Introduction;196
12.1.1;5.1.1 Types of Fuel Blending;197
12.1.2;5.1.2 The Reasons for Fuel Blending;198
12.1.3;5.1.3 Issues for Fuel Blending;199
12.2;5.2 Equipment and Controls Issues Associated with Fuel Blending;200
12.2.1;5.2.1 The Blending System at Monroe Power Plant;201
12.2.2;5.2.2 Alternative Blending Systems;202
12.3;5.3 Fuel and Combustion Effects of Blending;206
12.3.1;5.3.1 Blending Overview;207
12.3.2;5.3.2 The Monroe Power Plant Case Study;207
12.3.2.1;5.3.2.1 Development of Combustion Models as an Analytical Tool;207
12.3.2.2;5.3.2.2 Fuel Effects of Blending at Monroe;210
12.3.2.3;5.3.2.3 Volatility and Volatile Release Patterns;210
12.3.2.4;5.3.2.4 Char Oxidation;212
12.3.2.5;5.3.2.5 Ash Chemistry;212
12.3.3;5.3.3 Fuel Effects for Other Locations;218
12.4;5.4 Operational Issues with Fuel Blending;218
12.4.1;5.4.1 Managing Inorganic Constituents;219
12.4.2;5.4.2 Managing the Fire;219
12.4.3;5.4.3 Managing Blend Changes;219
12.5;5.5 Conclusions;221
12.6;5.6 References;221
13;Chapter 6: Fuel Preparation;224
13.1;6.1 Know Your Fuel;225
13.1.1;6.1.1 Fuel Types;225
13.1.2;6.1.2 Fuel Issues;226
13.1.3;6.1.3 Coal;227
13.1.4;6.1.4 Petroleum-Based Products;229
13.1.5;6.1.5 Biomass;230
13.2;6.2 Fuel Storage Silo;231
13.2.1;6.2.1 Storage Capacity;231
13.2.2;6.2.2 Silo/Bunker Design Considerations;233
13.2.3;6.2.3 Safety Considerations;236
13.3;6.3 Solid Fuel Flow Control;236
13.4;6.4 Fuel Sizing Equipment;239
13.5;6.5 Pulverized Coal System Analysis Guidelines;250
13.5.1;6.5.1 Mill Sizing and Standard Ratings;251
13.5.2;6.5.2 Coal Mill Capacity and Capability Analysis;254
13.5.2.1;6.5.2.1 Coal Throughput Capability;255
13.5.2.2;6.5.2.2 Primary Air Capability;257
13.5.2.3;6.5.2.3 Air Heater Leakage;257
13.5.2.4;6.5.2.4 Thermal Requirements;259
13.5.2.5;6.5.2.5 Analysis Summary;262
13.5.3;6.5.3 Coal Mill Capability Test Plan;262
13.6;6.6 References;264
14;Chapter 7: Conventional Firing Systems;266
14.1;7.1 Overview;266
14.2;7.2 Types of Traditional Combustion Systems;267
14.2.1;7.2.1 Stoker Firing Systems;267
14.2.2;7.2.2 Pulverized Firing Systems;267
14.2.3;7.2.3 Cyclone Firing Systems;268
14.2.4;7.2.4 Fluidized-Bed Systems;268
14.3;7.3 Applications and Uses of Conventional Firing Systems;268
14.3.1;7.3.1 Electricity Generation;268
14.3.2;7.3.2 Industrial Boilers, Kilns, and Process Heaters;271
14.4;7.4 Basic Issues;272
14.4.1;7.4.1 Fuel Selection;272
14.4.2;7.4.2 Operational Considerations;274
14.4.3;7.4.3 Airborne Emissions;275
14.4.3.1;7.4.3.1 Particulates;275
14.4.3.2;7.4.3.2 SO2;275
14.4.3.3;7.4.3.3 NOx;275
14.4.3.4;7.4.3.5 CO2;276
14.4.3.5;7.4.3.5 Other Emissions (Hazardous Air Pollutants);276
14.5;7.5 Firing Systems and Combustion Issues;277
14.5.1;7.5.1 Stoker Firing;277
14.5.1.1;7.5.1.1 Basic Description and Identification of Types;277
14.5.1.2;7.5.1.2 Fuel Selection for Stokers;278
14.5.1.3;7.5.1.3 Fuel Preparation;279
14.5.1.4;7.5.1.4 Design Parameters;279
14.5.1.5;7.5.1.5 Functioning of Grates;280
14.5.2;7.5.2 Pulverized Firing;281
14.5.2.1;7.5.2.1 Applications;281
14.5.2.2;7.5.2.2 Basic Description and Identification of Types;282
14.5.2.3;7.5.2.3 Wall-Fired Pulverized Coal Boilers and Firing Systems;282
14.5.2.4;7.5.2.4 Tangentially Fired Pulverized Coal Boilers;287
14.5.2.5;7.5.2.5 Vertically Fired (Arch-Fired) Boilers;289
14.5.2.6;7.5.2.6 Pulverized Coal Burner Systems;289
14.5.2.7;7.5.2.7 Typical and Maximum Conditions;290
14.5.2.8;7.5.2.8 Fuel Preparation;290
14.5.2.9;7.5.2.9 Effect of Moisture;292
14.5.2.10;7.5.2.10 Swirling Flow;292
14.5.2.11;7.5.2.11 Overfire Air Systems as Burner-Based Emissions Control;292
14.5.3;7.5.3 Cyclone Firing;293
14.5.3.1;7.5.3.1 Basic Description and Identification of Types;293
14.5.3.2;7.5.3.2 Typical and Maximum Conditions;294
14.5.3.3;7.5.3.3 NOx Formation and Cyclones;294
14.5.3.4;7.5.3.4 Design and Operating Parameters;294
14.6;7.6 Concluding Statements;296
14.7;7.7 References;297
15;Chapter 8: Fluidized-Bed Firing Systems;300
15.1;8.1 Introduction;300
15.2;8.2 Fluidized-Bed Combustion Systems;301
15.2.1;8.2.1 Bubbling Fluidized-Bed Combustion (BFBC);303
15.2.2;8.2.2 Circulating Fluidized-Bed Combustion (CFBC);305
15.2.3;8.2.3 Pressurized Fluidized-Bed Combustion (PFBC);307
15.3;8.3 Heat Transfer;308
15.4;8.4 Combustion Efficiency;309
15.5;8.5 Fuel Flexibility;309
15.6;8.6 Pollutant Formation and Control;313
15.6.1;8.6.1 Sulfur Dioxide;314
15.6.1.1;8.6.1.1 Transformation of Sorbents in the FBC Process;314
15.6.1.2;8.6.1.2 Bed Temperature;316
15.6.1.3;8.6.1.3 Particle Residence Time;317
15.6.1.4;8.6.1.4 Bed Quality;317
15.6.1.5;8.6.1.5 Gaseous Environment;317
15.6.1.6;8.6.1.6 Combustor Pressure;317
15.6.1.7;8.6.1.7 Chemical Composition;318
15.6.1.8;8.6.1.8 Porosity;318
15.6.1.9;8.6.1.9 Surface Area;319
15.6.1.10;8.6.1.10 Particle Size;319
15.6.2;8.6.2 Nitrogen Oxides;320
15.6.2.1;8.6.2.1 NOx Formation;320
15.6.2.2;8.6.2.2 Fuel Nitrogen and Volatile Matter Content: Fuel Rank;321
15.6.2.3;8.6.2.3 Combustion Temperature;321
15.6.2.4;8.6.2.4 Excess Air;322
15.6.2.5;8.6.2.5 Gas Velocity/Residence Time;322
15.6.2.6;8.6.2.6 Limestone Effects;322
15.6.2.7;8.6.2.7 NOx Reduction Techniques;322
15.6.3;8.6.3 Particulate Matter;323
15.6.4;8.6.4 Carbon Monoxide/Hydrocarbons;323
15.6.5;8.6.5 Trace Elements;324
15.7;8.7 Ash Chemistry and Agglomeration Issues;326
15.7.1;8.7.1 Chemical Fractionation of Biomass;328
15.7.1.1;8.7.1.1 Results of the Chemical Fractionation Study;329
15.7.2;8.7.2 Thermodynamic Modeling to Predict Inorganic Phases;336
15.7.3;8.7.3 Viscosity of Inorganic Melt Phases;341
15.7.3.1;8.7.3.1 Viscosity Results;344
15.7.4;8.7.4 Conclusions;345
15.8;8.8 FBC Boilers and Their Role in Clean Coal Technology Development;346
15.8.1;8.8.1 United States;347
15.8.1.1;8.8.1.1 Clean Coal Technology Development Program (CCTDP);347
15.8.1.2;8.8.1.2 Clean Coal Power Initiative;349
15.8.2;8.8.2 Worldwide;349
15.8.3;8.8.3 Further Developments Needed for Conventional Clean Coal Technologies;350
15.9;8.9 Unique Opportunities for FBCs;350
15.9.1;8.9.1 Background of Opportunity/Food Industry Issue;351
15.9.2;8.9.2 Disposal Options;353
15.9.3;8.9.3 Cofiring ATB in Coal-Fired Boilers for Carcass Disposal;354
15.9.4;8.9.4 Summary of ATB/Coal Cofiring in a Pilot-Scale Fluidized-Bed Combustor;354
15.9.4.1;8.9.4.1 NCBA/Cargill Food Solutions Tests;355
15.9.4.2;8.9.4.2 PEDA/Cargill Food Solutions Tests;357
15.9.4.3;8.9.4.3 DOE Oxygen-Enhanced Combustion Testing;357
15.9.5;8.9.5 Closing Statements;358
15.10;8.10 References;358
16;Chapter 9: Post-Combustion Emissions Control;366
16.1;9.1 Introduction;366
16.2;9.2 Particulate Capture;366
16.2.1;9.2.1 Introduction;366
16.2.2;9.2.2 Electrostatic Precipitation;367
16.2.2.1;9.2.2.1 Introduction;367
16.2.2.2;9.2.2.2 Theory;368
16.2.2.3;9.2.2.3 Equipment Arrangement;370
16.2.2.4;9.2.2.4 Resistivity;371
16.2.2.5;9.2.2.5 Process Control;372
16.2.2.6;9.2.2.6 Operating an Electrostatic Precipitator;376
16.2.2.7;9.2.2.7 Diagnostics;381
16.2.2.8;9.2.2.8 Resistivity Conditioning;385
16.2.3;9.2.3 Baghouse/Fabric Filters;386
16.2.3.1;9.2.3.1 Overview;386
16.2.3.2;9.2.3.2 Basic Principles;387
16.2.3.3;9.2.3.3 Specific Designs;388
16.2.3.4;9.2.3.4 Collection Efficiency;390
16.2.3.5;9.2.3.5 Conclusions;391
16.3;9.3 Acid Gas Control;391
16.3.1;9.3.1 Acid Gases of Importance: SO2, HCl;391
16.3.2;9.3.2 Array of Technologies Depending on Application;392
16.3.3;9.3.3 Wet Scrubber Technology;392
16.3.3.1;9.3.3.1 Basic Principles;392
16.3.3.2;9.3.3.2 Typical Designs/Scale of Operations;392
16.3.3.3;9.3.3.3 Efficiencies;394
16.3.4;9.3.4 Spray Dryer Absorbers;394
16.3.4.1;9.3.4.1 Basic Principles;394
16.3.4.2;9.3.4.2 Typical Designs/Scale of Operation;394
16.3.4.3;9.3.4.3 Efficiencies;395
16.3.4.4;9.3.4.4 Waste Streams;396
16.3.5;9.3.5 Dry Injection Systems;396
16.3.5.1;9.3.5.1 Basic Principles;396
16.3.5.2;9.3.5.2 Typical Designs/Scale of Operations;397
16.3.5.3;9.3.5.3 Efficiencies;397
16.3.6;9.3.6 Reactions;397
16.3.6.1;9.3.6.1 Kinetics and Thermodynamics;399
16.4;9.4 NOx Control;401
16.4.1;9.4.1 Introduction;401
16.4.2;9.4.2 Post-Combustion Technologies of Significance;402
16.4.2.1;9.4.2.1 Selective Noncatalytic Reduction (SNCR);402
16.4.2.2;9.4.2.2 Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR);403
16.5;9.5 Mercury Control;405
16.5.1;9.5.1 Mercury Emissions from Existing Control Technologies from Coal-Fired Power Plants;405
16.5.2;9.5.2 Mercury Legislation;408
16.5.3;9.5.3 Technologies for Mercury Control;408
16.5.3.1;9.5.3.1 Sorbent Injection;409
16.5.3.2;9.5.3.2 Wet Flue Gas Desulfurization;413
16.6;9.6 Carbon Dioxide Capture;414
16.6.1;9.6.1 Introduction;414
16.6.2;9.6.2 Approaches for Capturing Carbon Dioxide from Coal-Fired Power Plants;414
16.6.3;9.6.3 Post-Combustion Carbon Dioxide Scrubbing;414
16.7;9.7 References;415
17;Chapter 10: Some Computer Applications for Combustion Engineering with Solid Fuels;418
17.1;10.1 Introduction;418
17.1.1;10.1.1 Computer Applications in Combustion Engineering;419
17.1.1.1;10.1.1.1 Analytical Modeling;419
17.1.1.2;10.1.1.2 Computer Applications for Process Control;421
17.1.1.3;10.1.1.3 Computer Applications for Fuel Control;421
17.2;10.2 Background;421
17.3;10.3 Process for Fuels Opportunity Realization;422
17.3.1;10.3.1 Identify Current Fuels Opportunities;422
17.3.2;10.3.2 Validate Objectives and Develop Effective Design;424
17.4;10.4 Successfully Applying Computer Technology to Fuels Control;428
17.5;10.5 AccuTrack Situation Challenges and Response;433
17.6;10.6 Modeling the Flow of Coal in Bunkers and Silos;435
17.6.1;10.6.1 Plug Flow Models;435
17.6.2;10.6.2 Discrete Element Modeling (DEM);435
17.6.3;10.6.3 Void Model;436
17.6.4;10.6.4 Stochastic Model;436
17.6.5;10.6.5 Bunker Geometry;437
17.6.6;10.6.6 Validation of Bunker Modeling;440
17.7;10.7 Conclusions Regarding the AccuTrack Approach to Computer Management of Fuel Properties;445
17.8;10.8 Summary;446
18;Chapter 11: Gasification;448
18.1;11.1 Introduction to Gasification;448
18.2;11.2 Gasification Theory;449
18.3;11.3 Features of Gasification Systems;452
18.3.1;11.3.1 Bed Type;452
18.3.2;11.3.2 Flow Direction;455
18.3.3;11.3.3 Feed Preparation;455
18.3.4;11.3.4 Operating Temperature;456
18.3.5;11.3.5 Oxidant;457
18.3.6;11.3.6 Reactor Containment;458
18.3.7;11.3.7 Primary Syngas Cooling;458
18.3.8;11.3.8 Primary Gas Cleaning;460
18.3.9;11.3.9 Fuel Issues;460
18.4;11.4 Commercial Gasification Systems;461
18.4.1;11.4.1 GE Energy (formerly Texaco);461
18.4.2;11.4.2 Shell;461
18.4.3;11.4.3 E-Gas (ConocoPhillips);464
18.4.4;11.4.4 Siemens (formerly Future Energy GSP);464
18.4.5;11.4.5 KBR Transport Gasifier;466
18.4.6;11.4.6 Lurgi;467
18.4.7;11.4.7 Raw Gas Analyses;468
18.5;11.5 Trace Components in Gasifier Syngas;468
18.5.1;11.5.1 Sulfur Compounds;468
18.5.2;11.5.2 Nitrogen Compounds;469
18.5.3;11.5.3 Chlorine Compounds;469
18.5.4;11.5.4 Unsaturated Hydrocarbons;469
18.5.5;11.5.5 Oxygen;469
18.5.6;11.5.6 Formic Acid;470
18.5.7;11.5.7 Carbon;470
18.5.8;11.5.8 Metal Carbonyls;470
18.5.9;11.5.9 Mercury;470
18.5.10;11.5.10 Arsenic;471
18.6;11.6 Gas Treating;471
18.6.1;11.6.1 Introduction;471
18.6.2;11.6.2 Desulfurization;472
18.6.3;11.6.3 Chemical Solvent Processes;473
18.6.3.1;11.6.3.1 Amine Processes;473
18.6.4;11.6.4 Physical Solvent Processes;473
18.6.4.1;11.6.4.1 Physical Washes;473
18.6.4.2;11.6.4.2 Selexol;474
18.6.4.3;11.6.4.3 Rectisol;475
18.6.4.4;11.6.4.4 Liquid Redox Processes;478
18.6.5;11.6.5 Membranes;478
18.6.6;11.6.6 COS Hydrolysis;478
18.6.7;11.6.7 CO Shift;479
18.6.7.1;11.6.7.1 Clean Gas Shift;480
18.6.7.2;11.6.7.2 Raw Gas Shift;481
18.6.8;11.6.8 Mercury Removal;482
18.7;11.7 Complete Systems;482
18.7.1;11.7.1 Integrated Gasification-Combined Cycle (IGCC);482
18.7.1.1;11.7.1.2 Gasification Block;484
18.7.1.2;11.7.1.3 Gas Treatment and Sulfur Recovery;485
18.7.1.3;11.7.1.4 Combined Cycle Power Plant;486
18.7.2;11.7.2 IGCC with Carbon Capture;487
18.7.3;11.7.3 Methanol;487
18.8;11.8 Benefits and Limits of Gasification;489
18.8.1;11.8.1 Efficiency;489
18.8.2;11.8.2 Environmental Impact;489
18.8.2.1;11.8.2.1 Sulfur Emissions;490
18.8.2.2;11.8.2.2 NOx Emissions;490
18.8.2.3;11.8.2.3 Mercury;490
18.8.2.4;11.8.2.4 Other Emissions;490
18.8.2.5;11.8.2.5 Start-up Emissions;490
18.8.3;11.8.3 Availability;491
18.8.4;11.8.4 Capital Requirements;491
18.9;11.9 References;492
19;Chapter 12: Policy Considerations for Combustion Engineering;494
19.1;12.1 Introduction;494
19.1.1;12.1.1 Combustion Engineers Do Not Make Policy;496
19.1.2;12.1.2 Combustion Engineers Respond to Policy;497
19.2;12.2 Environmental Policy and the Engineering Response;498
19.2.1;12.2.1 A Historical Perspective;499
19.2.2;12.2.2 Environmental Policy and Legislation Since 1990;499
19.2.3;12.2.3 Mechanisms of Engineering Response to Environmental Policy;502
19.3;12.3 Energy Policy and Combustion Engineering;505
19.3.1;12.3.1 Energy Policy and Fuel Selection;506
19.3.2;12.3.2 Deregulation and Its Precursors;506
19.3.3;12.3.3 Energy Efficiency and Energy Policy;507
19.4;12.4 Other Federal, State, Local, and Private Policies Impacting Combustion Engineers;507
19.5;12.5 Conclusions;509
19.6;12.6 References;509
20;Index;510