Mukhopadhyay / Huang Sensors

Advancements in Modeling, Design Issues, Fabrication and Practical Applications
1. Auflage 2008
ISBN: 978-3-540-69033-7
Verlag: Springer-Verlag
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: Adobe DRM (»Systemvoraussetzungen)

E-Book, Englisch, 424 Seiten

Sensors are the most important component in any system and engineers in any field need to understand the fundamentals of how these components work, how to select them properly and how to integrate them into an overall system. This book has outlined the fundamentals, analytical concepts, modelling and design issues, technical details and practical applications of different types of sensors, electromagnetic, capacitive, ultrasonic, vision, Terahertz, displacement, fibre-optic and so on. The book: addresses the identification, modeling, selection, operation and integration of a wide variety of sensors, demonstrates the concepts of different sensors technology through simulation, design and real implementations, discusses the design and fabrication of high performance modern sensors technology, presents a selection of cutting-edge applications. Written by experts in their area of research, this book will be useful reference book for engineers and scientist especially the post-graduate students find this book as reference book for their research.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Mukhopadhyay, SC

Huang, RYM

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Contents;5
2;Guest Editorial;8
3;List of Contributors;15
4;Electromagnetic Sensors;19
4.1;Modern CMOS Hall Sensors with Integrated Magnetic Concentrators;20
4.1.1;1 HallEffect andHallElement;20
4.1.2;2 Contactless Magnetic Position Measurement;21
4.1.3;3 Multi-Axis Sensing;22
4.1.4;4 Integrated Magnetic Concentrator;23
4.1.5;5 IMCProcess;25
4.1.6;6 Magnetic andGeometric Properties of the IMC Layer;26
4.1.6.1;6.1 IMCMaterial Properties;26
4.1.6.2;6.2 IMCGeometric Properties;28
4.1.7;7 Saturation;29
4.1.8;8 Hysteresis;30
4.1.9;9 Sensor Architecture;31
4.1.10;10 Angular Position Sensor;33
4.1.11;11 Linear Position Sensor;34
4.1.12;12 Contactless Joystick Sensor;35
4.1.13;13 ElectricalCurrent Sensor;35
4.1.14;14 Electronic Compass;36
4.1.15;References;37
4.2;Commercial Magnetic Sensors (Hall and Anisotropic Magnetoresistors);39
4.2.1;1 Introduction;39
4.2.2;2 Hall Sensor Design;40
4.2.3;3 AMR (Anisotropic Magneto-Resistive) Sensors;44
4.2.4;4 AMR Model;46
4.2.5;5 Future Progress;57
4.2.6;References;58
4.3;Improving the Accuracy of Magnetic Sensors;60
4.3.1;1 Introduction;60
4.3.2;2 Temperature Stability;60
4.3.2.1;2.1 Hall Sensors;61
4.3.2.2;2.2 Magnetoresistors;62
4.3.2.3;2.3 Fluxgate Sensors;62
4.3.2.4;2.4 GMI Sensors;63
4.3.2.5;2.5 Proton Magnetometer;64
4.3.3;3 Linearity;64
4.3.3.1;3.1 How to Measure the Linearity;65
4.3.4;4 Crossfield Effect;66
4.3.4.1;4.1 AMR;66
4.3.4.2;4.2 Fluxgate;69
4.3.5;5 Noise;70
4.3.5.1;5.1 How to Measure Noise Values;71
4.3.6;6 Perming Effect;72
4.3.7;7 Remarks on Digitalization;73
4.3.8;8 Peculiarities of Current Sensors;73
4.3.9;9 Peculiarities of Position Sensors;74
4.3.10;References;74
4.4;Modelling Electromagnetic Field Sensors;76
4.4.1;1 Introduction;76
4.4.2;2 Modelling PlaneWave Propagation;77
4.4.3;3 Differential Equation Methods;78
4.4.4;4 Integral Equation Methods;79
4.4.5;5 An Example Integral Equation Solution;80
4.4.6;6 Basis Functions;84
4.4.7;7 Cell Shape and Size;86
4.4.8;8 Wavelength Considerations;87
4.4.9;9 Convergence and Execution Considerations;87
4.4.10;10 Proximity Compensation;88
4.4.11;11 Conclusion;88
4.4.12;References;88
4.5;Dielectric Characterization of Biological Tissues: Constraints Related to Ex Vivo Measurements;90
4.5.1;1 Introduction;90
4.5.2;2 Metrological Aspects of Bioimpedance Spectroscopy;92
4.5.3;3 Measurement Constraints Related to the Bioimpedance Sensor;93
4.5.4;4 Measurement Constraints Related to the Biological Tissue Sample;94
4.5.5;5 Examples of Ex Vivo Results;95
4.5.6;6 Measurements on Human Blood;95
4.5.7;7 Ex Vivo Results;96
4.5.7.1;7.1 Discussion;96
4.5.7.2;7.2 Modelization Approach for Dielectric Characterization;97
4.5.8;8 Simulation;98
4.5.8.1;8.1 Discussion;99
4.5.9;9 Measurements on Anisotropic Medium;99
4.5.9.1;9.1 Electrodes Configuration;101
4.5.10;10 Ex Vivo Results;101
4.5.10.1;10.1 Relation Between the Permittivity and the Conductivity;101
4.5.11;11 Discussion on Bone Anisotropy Measurements at Low Frequency;101
4.5.12;12 Conclusion;103
4.5.13;References;103
4.6;Estimation of Property of Sheep Skin to Modify the Tanning Process Using Interdigital Sensors;106
4.6.1;1 Introduction;106
4.6.2;2 Motivation;107
4.6.3;3 Operating Principle of Interdigital Sensors;108
4.6.4;4 Processing of Sheep Skin;111
4.6.5;5 Experimental Setup;112
4.6.6;6 Preliminary Experimental Results;113
4.6.7;7 Interfacing and Development of an Embedded Controller Based Sensing System;116
4.6.8;8 Experiments with Sheep Skins and Results;118
4.6.9;9 Conclusion;123
4.6.10;References;123
5;Fiber Optic/Optical Fibre Sensors;126
5.1;Fiber Bragg Gratings Evanescent Wave Sensors: A View Back and Recent Advancements;127
5.1.1;1 Introduction;127
5.1.2;2 Fiber Bragg Gratings Hystory;128
5.1.3;3 Fiber Bragg Gratings as Sensors;133
5.1.4;4 FBGs EvanescentWave Sensors;136
5.1.4.1;4.1 FBGs Written in D-shaped Optical Fibers;137
5.1.4.2;4.2 Thinned FBGs (ThFBGS);142
5.1.4.3;4.3 Tilted FBGs;151
5.1.4.4;4.4 Micro-Structured FBGs;153
5.1.4.5;4.5 Coated FBGs Based on Chemo-Mechanical and Chemo- Thermal Effects;160
5.1.5;5 Perspectives and Challenges;160
5.1.6;References;162
5.2;Optical Fibre Humidity Sensors Using Nano- films;167
5.2.1;1 Introduction;167
5.2.2;2 Humidity Sensing Materials and Deposition Techniques;169
5.2.2.1;2.1 Nanostructured Films;170
5.2.3;3 Optical Techniques Used In Fibre Optic Humidity Sensors;172
5.2.3.1;3.1 Reflective Sensors Based on Coating Deposition on the Tip of the Fibre;172
5.2.3.2;3.2 Transmissive Evanescent Wave Sensors;176
5.2.4;4 Conclusions;187
5.2.5;References;187
5.3;Overview of the OPTO-EMI-SENSE Project: Optical Fibre Sensor Network for Automotive Emission Monitoring;192
5.3.1;1 Introduction;193
5.3.2;2 Theoretical Background;194
5.3.3;3 Experimental Results ;196
5.3.3.1;3.1 Gas Measurement in the Mid Infra Red Range;196
5.3.3.2;3.2 Gas Measurement in the Ultra Violet Range;200
5.3.3.3;3.3 Optical Fibre Temperature Measurement;206
5.3.4;4 Conclusions;208
5.3.5;References;209
6;Wireless Sensors;210
6.1;Wireless Sensor Networks and Applications;211
6.1.1;1 Introduction;211
6.1.2;2 Low-Rate Wireless Communication Technology;212
6.1.3;3 WSN Fundamentals;214
6.1.3.1;3.1 Network Topology;214
6.1.3.2;3.2 Routing Protocols;215
6.1.3.3;3.3 Data Integration Modes;216
6.1.4;4 WSN Architectures;217
6.1.4.1;4.1 Tier-based Architectures;217
6.1.4.2;4.2 Cluster-based Architectures;220
6.1.5;5 WSN Applications;222
6.1.5.1;5.1 WSN Applications Supporting Static Routing;223
6.1.5.2;5.2 WSN Applications Supporting Dynamic Routing;226
6.1.6;6 Conclusions;229
6.1.7;References;229
6.2;Wireless Sensor Network Transport Layer: State of the Art;232
6.2.1;1 Introduction;233
6.2.1.1;1.1 Relevant Terminologies;234
6.2.2;2 Major Transport Layer Protocols;239
6.2.2.1;2.1 COngestion Detection and Avoidance(CODA);240
6.2.2.2;2.2 Event-to-Sink Reliable Transport (ESRT);241
6.2.2.3;2.3 Reliable Multi-Segment Transport (RMST);242
6.2.2.4;2.4 Pump Slowly Fetch Quickly (PSFQ);243
6.2.2.5;2.5 GARUDA;243
6.2.2.6;2.6 Tiny TCP/IP;244
6.2.2.7;2.7 Sensor TCP(STCP);245
6.2.2.8;2.8 SenTCP;246
6.2.2.9;2.9 Trickle;246
6.2.2.10;2.10 FUSION;247
6.2.2.11;2.11 Asymmetric and Reliable Transport (ART);247
6.2.2.12;2.12 Congestion Control and Fairness (CCF);248
6.2.2.13;2.13 Priority-based Congestion Control Protocol (PCCP);249
6.2.2.14;2.14 Siphon;251
6.2.2.15;2.15 Reliable Bursty Convergecast (RBC);251
6.2.2.16;2.16 RAP;252
6.2.3;3 Conclusion;254
6.2.4;References;255
7;Sensors for Tracking and Navigation;257
7.1;Real Time Tracking and Monitoring of Human Behavior in an Indoor Environment;258
7.1.1;1 Introduction;259
7.1.2;2 Motivation and Objectives;260
7.1.3;3 Fiber Grating and its Operational Principles;261
7.1.4;4 The FG Based 3D Vision Sensor System and its Hardware Configiuration;263
7.1.5;5 Optical Arrangement andWorking Principles;265
7.1.6;6 FG-CCD Sensor Installation, Spot Pattern Projection and Effective Visible Area;267
7.1.7;7 Operational Software Development;268
7.1.7.1;7.1 Reference Spots Frame Generation;269
7.1.7.2;7.2 Real-Time Processing;270
7.1.8;8 Application and Experimental Results;272
7.1.9;9 Conclusion;275
7.1.10;References;276
7.2;Dynamic VRML-Based Navigable 3D Map for Indoor Location- Aware Systems;278
7.2.1;1 Introduction;278
7.2.2;2 Indoor Location-Aware Systems;279
7.2.2.1;2.1 Cricket-Based Location-Aware System;279
7.2.2.2;2.2 RSSI-Based Location-Aware System;280
7.2.3;3 Modeling Approach Using VRML;281
7.2.3.1;3.1 Acquiring Data;282
7.2.3.2;3.2 Constructing 3D Map;283
7.2.3.3;3.3 Finalizing and Visualizing 3D Map;283
7.2.4;4 Visibility Computations and Determination;285
7.2.4.1;4.1 Portal Culling Algorithm;285
7.2.5;5 3D Navigation Viewer (3DNV);287
7.2.5.1;5.1 System Architecture of 3DNV;287
7.2.6;6 System Implementation and Evaluation;290
7.2.7;7 Conclusion;293
7.2.8;References;293
8;Ultrasonic Sensor;294
8.1;Ultrasonic Sensing: Fundamentals and its Applications to Nondestructive Evaluation;295
8.1.1;1 Introduction;295
8.1.2;2 Fundamentals of Ultrasound ;296
8.1.2.1;2.1 Ultrasonic Waves in Media;296
8.1.2.2;2.2 Features of Ultrasonic Waves;297
8.1.3;3 Measurement of Ultrasound;302
8.1.3.1;3.1 Generation and Detection of Ultrasonic Waves;302
8.1.3.2;3.2 Basics of Instrumentation;306
8.1.4;4 Applications to Nondestructive Evaluation;308
8.1.4.1;4.1 Buffer Rod Sensors for High Temperature Monitoring;308
8.1.4.2;4.2 Imaging Using Focused Sensors;309
8.1.4.3;4.3 In-Situ Monitoring of Solid-Liquid Interface;310
8.1.4.4;4.4 Monitoring of Internal Temperature Distribution;310
8.1.5;5 Conclusion;312
8.1.6;References;312
9;Image Sensor;314
9.1;Multimodal Image Sensor Fusion Using Independent Component Analysis;315
9.1.1;1 Introduction;315
9.1.2;2 Image Analysis Using ICA;317
9.1.3;3 Overview of Fusion Metrics;318
9.1.3.1;3.1 Piella Metric;318
9.1.3.2;3.2 Petrovic Metric;319
9.1.4;4 Proposed Fusion Method Using Independent Component Analysis ;320
9.1.4.1;4.1 Separated Training Sets;320
9.1.4.2;4.2 Region-Based Fusion of ICA Coefficients;321
9.1.4.3;4.3 Reconstruction of the Fused Image Using Fusion Metrics;323
9.1.5;5 Experimental Results;323
9.1.5.1;5.1 Comparison with the Standard ICA Image Fusion Method;324
9.1.5.2;5.2 Comparison with the State-of-the-Art Image Fusion Methods;324
9.1.6;6 Conclusion;331
9.1.7;References;331
10;Vision Sensing;332
10.1;Fast Image Capture and Vision Processing For Robotic Applications;333
10.1.1;1 Introduction;333
10.1.2;2 Global Vision - Sources of Error;335
10.1.2.1;2.1 Separate Processing of Odd and Even Scan Fields of an Interlaced Bit Mapped Image;335
10.1.2.2;2.2 Variation of Light Intensity;336
10.1.2.3;2.3 Inherent Sensor Noise;337
10.1.3;3 Experimental Hardware Setup;337
10.1.4;4 Colour Segmentation, Area Thresholding, Blob Merging;338
10.1.5;5 Interrupt Based Multi-Buffered Image Capture;341
10.1.6;6 Full Tracking vs. Incremental Tracking;342
10.1.6.1;6.1 Adaptive Tracking Window Size;344
10.1.7;7 A Fast Access Color Look-Up-Table (LUT) ;344
10.1.7.1;7.1 Limitations of Using RGB Color Space;344
10.1.7.2;7.2 Defining YUV Thresholds;345
10.1.7.3;7.3 Membership Testing;346
10.1.7.4;7.4 A One-Dimensional Color Look-Up-Table;346
10.1.7.5;7.5 Posting the Look-Up-Table;347
10.1.7.6;7.6 Inspecting the Look-Up-Table;347
10.1.8;8 Discrete YUV Look-Up-Table;348
10.1.8.1;8.1 Populating the Discrete YUV Look-Up-Table;349
10.1.8.2;8.2 Testing Color Class Membership;351
10.1.8.3;8.3 Color Space Transformation;351
10.1.8.4;8.4 A New Color Space;352
10.1.8.5;8.5 Experimental Results and Discussion;352
10.1.8.6;References;356
11;Sensors Based on Human Parameter;357
11.1;Affection Based Multi-robot TeamWork;358
11.1.1;1 Introduction;359
11.1.2;2 Taxonomy of MRT;360
11.1.3;3 Emotion and Emotional Intelligence;362
11.1.4;4 Emotional States;364
11.1.5;5 Emotional Roles in MAS/MRT;365
11.1.6;6 Development of Affection Based MRT;366
11.1.7;7 Affective Computing, Sensing, Expressing and Synthesis;374
11.1.8;8 Conclusion;376
11.1.9;References;376
12;Displacement Sensor;379
12.1;Displacement Sensor Using Magnetostrictive Wire and Decrease of its Hysteresis Error;380
12.1.1;1 Introduction;380
12.1.2;2 Operation Principle of Magnetostrictive Wire Type Displacement Sensor;381
12.1.3;3 Measurement of the Displacement Error ;382
12.1.3.1;3.1 Measuring Method;382
12.1.3.2;3.2 Measurement Result;383
12.1.4;4 Consideration on the Reduction of Displacement Error;384
12.1.5;5 Conclusions;385
12.1.6;References;385
13;THZ Sensor;386
13.1;Submillimeter-Wave Coherent and Incoherent Sensors for Space Applications;387
13.1.1;1 Introduction;387
13.1.2;2 Applications;390
13.1.2.1;2.1 Astronomy and Astrophysics;390
13.1.2.2;2.2 Planetary Sciences;392
13.1.2.3;2.3 Earth Sciences;394
13.1.2.4;2.4 Other Applications;397
13.1.3;3 Submillimeter-Wave Sensors;398
13.1.3.1;3.1 Sensitivity of Coherent (Heterodyne) and Incoherent ( Direct) Detection;400
13.1.3.2;3.2 Coherent (Heterodyne) Sensors;403
13.1.3.3;3.3 Incoherent (Direct) Detectors;405
13.1.4;4 Future Trends;408
13.1.5;5 Conclusion;409
13.1.6;References;410
14;Index;415