Nelson Dielectric Polymer Nanocomposites

1. Auflage 2009
ISBN: 978-1-4419-1591-7
Verlag: Springer
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 368 Seiten

Dielectric Polymer Nanocomposites provides the first in-depth discussion of nano-dielectrics, an emerging and fast moving topic in electrical insulation. The text begins with an overview of the background, principles and promise of nanodielectrics, followed by a discussion of the processing of nanocomposites and then proceeds with special considerations of clay based processes, mechanical, thermal and electric properties and surface properties as well as erosion resistance. Carbon nanotubes are discussed as a means of creation of non linear conductivity, the text concludes with a industrial applications perspective.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Nelson, J. Keith

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Dielectric Polymer Nanocomposites
;1
1.1;1 Background, Principles and Promise of Nanodielectrics;10
1.1.1;1.1 An Introductory Perspective of Electrical Insulation;10
1.1.1.1;1.1.1 The Emergence of Nanocomposites;11
1.1.1.2;1.1.2 Multifunctionality;12
1.1.1.3;1.1.3 A Philosophical Perspective;13
1.1.2;1.2 The Compounding of Dielectric Nanocomposites;16
1.1.2.1;1.2.1 The Importance and Assessment of Dispersion;17
1.1.2.2;1.2.2 Functionalization;20
1.1.3;1.3 Property Modifications;23
1.1.3.1;1.3.1 Property Augmentation of Practical Significance;23
1.1.3.2;1.3.2 Property Characterization for Diagnostic Purposes;27
1.1.3.2.1;1.3.2.1 Dielectric Spectroscopy;28
1.1.3.2.2;1.3.2.2 Internal Space Charge Characteristics;30
1.1.3.2.3;1.3.2.3 Dielectric Absorption;30
1.1.3.2.4;1.3.2.4 Thermally Stimulated Currents;33
1.1.3.2.5;1.3.2.5 Electroluminescence;34
1.1.4;1.4 Other Issues;35
1.1.5;References;36
1.2;2 The Processing of Nanocomposites;40
1.2.1;2.1 Introduction to Nanofillers;40
1.2.1.1;2.1.1 Classification of the Fillers;40
1.2.1.2;2.1.2 Surface Filler Treatment;45
1.2.2;2.2 Classification of the Processing of Nanocomposites;49
1.2.2.1;2.2.1 In Situ Polymerization Process;49
1.2.2.1.1;2.2.1.1 Thermoplastic Materials;50
1.2.2.1.2;2.2.1.2 Thermosetting Materials;51
1.2.2.2;2.2.2 Solvent Method;53
1.2.2.3;2.2.3 Melt Blending;54
1.2.2.4;2.2.4 Sol--Gel Process;56
1.2.3;2.3 Effects of Contaminants;57
1.2.3.1;2.3.1 Effect of By-Products of a Compatibilization Process;57
1.2.3.2;2.3.2 Effect of Moisture;61
1.2.4;2.4 The Assessment of Dispersion and Morphological Characterization;67
1.2.5;References;69
1.3;3 Special Considerations for Clay-Based Materials;74
1.3.1;3.1 The Nature of Clay Composites;74
1.3.1.1;3.1.1 Structure and Properties of Clay;74
1.3.1.2;3.1.2 Characteristics of Clay Nanocomposites;75
1.3.1.3;3.1.3 Effects of Clay Dispersion on Polymer Properties;76
1.3.1.3.1;3.1.3.1 Mechanical Properties;77
1.3.1.3.2;3.1.3.2 Thermal Properties;77
1.3.1.3.3;3.1.3.3 Electrical Insulation (Partial Discharge Resistance);78
1.3.1.3.4;3.1.3.4 Electrical Insulation (Insulation Breakdown Time);79
1.3.1.3.5;3.1.3.5 Gas Barrier;80
1.3.1.3.6;3.1.3.6 Flame Resistance;80
1.3.2;3.2 Intercalation and Exfoliation;82
1.3.2.1;3.2.1 Preparation Methods of Clay Nanocomposites;82
1.3.2.2;3.2.2 Improved Methods for Manufacturing Epoxy-Based Clay Nanocomposites;84
1.3.3;3.3 Chemical Treatments and Organic Modification;85
1.3.3.1;3.3.1 Organic Modifier of Clays and Modification Method;86
1.3.3.2;3.3.2 Confirming Organic Modification of Clays;89
1.3.3.3;3.3.3 Factors in the Intercalation Process;91
1.3.4;3.4 Compounding of Layered Silicate Nanocomposites;91
1.3.4.1;3.4.1 Factors in the Exfoliation Process;92
1.3.4.2;3.4.2 Rheological Characteristics of Polymer Containing Clays;95
1.3.4.3;3.4.3 Manufacture of Nanocomposite Using Unmodified Clays;97
1.3.5;3.5 In Situ Polymerization;97
1.3.5.1;3.5.1 Manufacture and Properties of Polyamide-Based Clay Nanocomposite;98
1.3.5.2;3.5.2 Manufacture and Properties of Epoxy-Based Clay Nanocomposite;99
1.3.6;3.6 Summary;100
1.3.7;References;101
1.4;4 The Chemistry and Physics of the Interface Regionand Functionalization;103
1.4.1;4.1 Introduction;103
1.4.1.1;4.1.1 Characterization;104
1.4.2;4.2 The Physical and Chemical Structure of Polymers;104
1.4.2.1;4.2.1 Key Physical and Chemical Properties of Polymers Used for Polymer Nanocomposites;104
1.4.2.2;4.2.2 Comparison of Polymers and Rubbers for Use in Nanocomposites and Their Role in the Interface Region;107
1.4.3;4.3 Morphology, Glass Transition and Free Volume of Polymers;108
1.4.4;4.4 Nanoparticles;109
1.4.4.1;4.4.1 Spherical Inorganic Particles;109
1.4.4.2;4.4.2 Colloidal Spherical Particles;111
1.4.4.3;4.4.3 Intercalated and Exfoliated Nanoparticles;112
1.4.4.4;4.4.4 Other Nanoparticle Structures;115
1.4.4.5;4.4.5 Bonding in Nanoparticles;116
1.4.5;4.5 The Surface Chemistry of Nanoparticles and Its Role in Charge Injection and Trapping;117
1.4.5.1;4.5.1 Functionalization;118
1.4.6;4.6 The Choice and Basis for Coupling Agents;118
1.4.7;4.7 Use of Compatibilizers for Intercalated and Exfoliated Nanocomposites;121
1.4.8;4.8 Morphology, Glass Transition and Free Volume in Polymer Nanocomposites;121
1.4.9;4.9 Interface Chemistry and Physics, Bonding, and Entanglement;124
1.4.9.1;4.9.1 Chemistry;124
1.4.9.2;4.9.2 Dielectric Relaxation Measurements;125
1.4.9.3;4.9.3 Electron Paramagnetic Resonance Measurements;130
1.4.9.4;4.9.4 Temperature-Modulated DSC Measurements;132
1.4.9.5;4.9.5 The Gouy-Chapman Layer: Interface Impurity Chemistry;132
1.4.9.6;4.9.6 Entanglement;133
1.4.10;4.10 Nucleation Effects;134
1.4.11;4.11 The Role of Water in Nanocomposites;134
1.4.12;4.12 Final Remarks;135
1.4.13;References;136
1.5;5 Modeling the Physics and Chemistry of Interfacesin Nanodielectrics;140
1.5.1;5.1 Introduction;140
1.5.2;5.2 Ab Initio Modeling Techniques;141
1.5.3;5.3 DFT Modeling of Polymers;144
1.5.4;5.4 Interfacial Electronic Structure;146
1.5.4.1;5.4.1 Background;146
1.5.4.2;5.4.2 DFT Determination of Offsets;147
1.5.4.3;5.4.3 The Layer-Decomposed Density of States;148
1.5.5;5.5 Dielectric Constant Across Interfaces;151
1.5.5.1;5.5.1 Background;151
1.5.5.2;5.5.2 Basics of the Theory of the Local Dielectric Permittivity;153
1.5.5.3;5.5.3 Applications;154
1.5.6;5.6 Electron-Phonon Interactions;158
1.5.7;5.7 Stability of Interfaces;160
1.5.8;5.8 Impurity Segregation at Interfaces;161
1.5.9;5.9 Concluding Thoughts;163
1.5.10;References;164
1.6;6 Mechanical and Thermal Properties;169
1.6.1;6.1 Introduction;169
1.6.2;6.2 The Effect on Elastic Modulus and Mechanical Strength;171
1.6.2.1;6.2.1 Nanofillers and Nanocomposites;171
1.6.2.2;6.2.2 Tensile Properties;174
1.6.3;6.3 The Effect on Fracture and Impact Toughness;176
1.6.3.1;6.3.1 Fracture Toughness;176
1.6.3.1.1;6.3.1.1 Crack Pinning;178
1.6.3.1.2;6.3.1.2 Crack Deflection;180
1.6.3.1.3;6.3.1.3 De-bonding and Plastic Void Growth;181
1.6.3.1.4;6.3.1.4 Localized Plastic Deformation of Matrix (Shear Banding and Crazing);182
1.6.3.1.5;6.3.1.5 Microcracking and Crack Bridging;183
1.6.3.2;6.3.2 Impact Toughness;184
1.6.4;6.4 The Effect on Long-Term Behaviors;185
1.6.4.1;6.4.1 Wear and Abrasion Resistance;185
1.6.4.1.1;6.4.1.1 Adhesive Wear;186
1.6.4.1.2;6.4.1.2 Abrasive Wear;186
1.6.4.1.3;6.4.1.3 Surface Fatigue;186
1.6.4.1.4;6.4.1.4 Fretting Wear;187
1.6.4.2;6.4.2 Fatigue Behavior;189
1.6.4.3;6.4.3 Creep Behavior;190
1.6.5;6.5 The Effect of Particulate Inclusion on Glass Transition;192
1.6.6;6.6 Thermal Conductivity;196
1.6.7;References;198
1.7;7 Electrical Properties;203
1.7.1;7.1 Charge Storage and Transport in Polymers and Nanocomposites;203
1.7.1.1;7.1.1 Introduction;203
1.7.1.2;7.1.2 Charge Transport in Insulating Systems;204
1.7.1.3;7.1.3 Charge Transport in Polymers;205
1.7.1.4;7.1.4 Electrode Effects;208
1.7.1.5;7.1.5 Space Charge Effects;209
1.7.1.6;7.1.6 Effect of Nanoparticles and Interaction Zone on Charge Transport;211
1.7.1.7;7.1.7 Percolation Effects;213
1.7.1.8;7.1.8 Examples of Charge Movement in Nanocomposites;216
1.7.1.9;7.1.9 Internal Charge Distribution in Nanocomposites;218
1.7.1.10;7.1.10 Concluding Remarks on Charges in Nanocomposites;221
1.7.2;7.2 Dielectric Response;221
1.7.2.1;7.2.1 Dielectric Spectroscopy;221
1.7.2.2;7.2.2 Dielectric Response of Nanocomposites;222
1.7.3;7.3 Electrical Breakdown;226
1.7.3.1;7.3.1 Introduction;226
1.7.3.2;7.3.2 Polyethylene Nanocomposites;226
1.7.3.3;7.3.3 Epoxy Nanocomposites;227
1.7.3.4;7.3.4 PVA Nanocomposite;229
1.7.3.5;7.3.5 Surface Functionalization of Nanoparticles;229
1.7.3.6;7.3.6 Voltage Endurance;230
1.7.4;7.4 Concluding Comments;232
1.7.5;References;232
1.8;8 Interface Properties and Surface Erosion Resistance;235
1.8.1;8.1 Introduction;235
1.8.2;8.2 Interface Properties of Nanocomposites;236
1.8.2.1;8.2.1 Silane Couplings;236
1.8.2.2;8.2.2 Wilkes' Model;236
1.8.2.3;8.2.3 Interface Models;238
1.8.2.3.1;8.2.3.1 Conceptual Illustration of Interfaces;238
1.8.2.3.2;8.2.3.2 Bound Polymers;238
1.8.2.3.3;8.2.3.3 Evidence for Far-Distance Interaction;239
1.8.2.3.4;8.2.3.4 Multi-core Model;241
1.8.2.3.5;8.2.3.5 Water Shell Model;243
1.8.3;8.3 Partial Discharge Resistance of Polymer Nanocomposites;243
1.8.3.1;8.3.1 Evaluation Methods for PD Resistance;243
1.8.3.2;8.3.2 Polyamide/Layered Silicate Nanocomposites;245
1.8.3.3;8.3.3 Epoxy Nanocomposites;247
1.8.3.4;8.3.4 Polyethylene and Polypropylene Nanocomposites;248
1.8.3.5;8.3.5 Possible Mechanism for PD Erosion;248
1.8.4;8.4 Laser and Plasma Ablation Resistance of Polymer Nanocomposites;250
1.8.5;8.5 Surface Erosion Resistance of Silicone Nanocomposites for Outdoor Use;251
1.8.6;8.6 Treeing Resistance of Polymer Nanocomposites;254
1.8.6.1;8.6.1 Electrode Systems for Treeing Experiments;254
1.8.6.2;8.6.2 Treeing Lifetime;255
1.8.6.3;8.6.3 Possible Effects of Nano-fillers on Treeing;257
1.8.6.4;8.6.4 Tree Initiation;258
1.8.7;8.7 Mechanisms of Surface Erosion and Tree Propagation in Polymer Nanocomposites;259
1.8.7.1;8.7.1 Summary for Experimental Verification;259
1.8.7.2;8.7.2 Consideration of Mechanisms of Erosion due to Partial Discharge and Treeing;259
1.8.8;8.8 Conclusions;262
1.8.9;References;262
1.9;9 Non-linear Field Grading Materials and Carbon Nanotube Nanocomposites with Controlled Conductivity;265
1.9.1;9.1 Introduction;265
1.9.2;9.2 Application of Electric Field Grading Materials for High-Voltage Cable Terminations;265
1.9.3;9.3 Shielding Applications for Highly Conductive Composites;267
1.9.4;9.4 Background on Percolation;269
1.9.5;9.5 Non-linear Electrical Nanocomposites for Field Grading Applications;272
1.9.5.1;9.5.1 Introduction;272
1.9.5.2;9.5.2 Effect of Particle Size on Composite Resistivity and Onset of Non-linearity;273
1.9.5.3;9.5.3 Network Model for Non-linear Behavior;275
1.9.5.4;9.5.4 Character of the Particle/Particle Conductivity;277
1.9.5.5;9.5.5 Capacitive Field Grading Materials;281
1.9.6;9.6 Carbon Nanotube/Insulating Polymer Composites for High Conductivity Applications;283
1.9.7;9.7 Summary;287
1.9.8;References;287
1.10;10 The Emerging Mechanistic Picture;291
1.10.1;10.1 Introduction;291
1.10.2;10.2 Charge Transport in Insulating Polymers;292
1.10.2.1;10.2.1 Electronic or Ionic Charge Carriers?;292
1.10.2.2;10.2.2 Electronic Energy Bands;292
1.10.2.3;10.2.3 Electron Injection, Transport and Trapping;293
1.10.3;10.3 Nanodielectric Models;295
1.10.3.1;10.3.1 The Interface Model;296
1.10.3.1.1;10.3.1.1 Interface Dimensions;296
1.10.3.1.2;10.3.1.2 The Tanaka et al. Formulation;298
1.10.3.1.3;10.3.1.3 The Lewis Formulation;298
1.10.3.2;10.3.2 Conductivity, Space Charge and the Interface Model;299
1.10.4;10.4 Conductivity and Space Charge in Selected Nanodielectrics;300
1.10.4.1;10.4.1 XLPE/Silica;301
1.10.4.2;10.4.2 LDPE/TiO2;306
1.10.4.3;10.4.3 LDPE/ZnO;310
1.10.4.4;10.4.4 LDPE/MgO;312
1.10.4.5;10.4.5 Poly(Ethylene-Ethyl Acrylate)/Carbon Nanotubes;314
1.10.4.6;10.4.6 Polystyrene/Carbon Nanofiber Composites;315
1.10.4.7;10.4.7 Polypropylene/Layered Silicate;318
1.10.5;10.5 Tailoring Charge Transport Properties;321
1.10.6;10.6 Emerging Charge Transport Mechanisms;321
1.10.7;References;322
1.11;11 Industrial Applications Perspective of Nanodielectrics;326
1.11.1;11.1 Introduction;326
1.11.2;11.2 Background;327
1.11.3;11.3 Polymer Nanocomposites;328
1.11.4;11.4 The Commercial Impact of Enhanced Electric Strength and Endurance;329
1.11.5;11.5 Opportunities for Enhanced High-Temperature Dielectrics;333
1.11.6;11.6 Cryogenic Applications and Other Extreme Environments;335
1.11.7;11.7 High-Voltage Stress Grading Materials and Conducting Nanocomposites;336
1.11.8;11.8 Applications in the Capacitor Industry;336
1.11.9;11.9 Multi-functional Opportunities;338
1.11.10;11.10 Conclusions;339
1.11.11;References;339
1.12;A Diagnostic Methods for Mechanistic Studies in Polymer Nanocomposites;344
1.12.1;A.1 Dielectric Spectroscopy;344
1.12.2;A.2 Pulsed Electroacoustic Analysis;346
1.12.2.1;A.2.1 Experimental Details;348
1.12.2.2;A.2.2 Signal Processing and Calibration;349
1.12.3;A.3 Thermally Stimulated Currents;351
1.12.3.1;A.3.1 Methodology;351
1.12.4;A.4 Electron Paramagnetic Resonance;353
1.12.4.1;A.4.1 Experimental Method;353
1.12.4.2;A.4.2 Interpretation;354
1.12.5;A.5 Dielectric Absorption;355
1.12.6;A.6 Spectrally-Resolved Electroluminescence;356
1.12.6.1;A.6.1 Experimental Details;357
1.12.7;A.7 Infrared Spectroscopy;358
1.12.7.1;A.7.1 Sample Preparation and Measurement;359
1.12.7.2;A.7.2 Interpretation;359
1.12.8;A.8 Differential Scanning Calorimetry;361
1.12.9;A.9 Electric Strength, Voltage Endurance, and Partial Discharge Measurements;362
1.12.9.1;A.9.1 The Stochastic Nature of Electrical Failure;363
1.12.9.2;A.9.2 Electric Strength;363
1.12.9.3;A.9.3 Voltage Endurance;364
1.12.9.4;A.9.4 Partial Discharge Measurements;365
1.13;Index;368