Pacheco-Torgal / Lourenco / Labrincha Eco-efficient Masonry Bricks and Blocks

Design, Properties and Durability
1. Auflage 2014
ISBN: 978-1-78242-318-8
Verlag: Elsevier Science & Techn.
Format: EPUB
Kopierschutz: 6 - ePub Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 548 Seiten

Reihe: Woodhead Publishing Series in Civil and Structural Engineering

Masonry walls constitute the interface between the building's interior and the outdoor environment. Masonry walls are traditionally composed of fired-clay bricks (solid or perforated) or blocks (concrete or earth-based), but in the past (and even in the present) they were often associated as needing an extra special thermal and acoustical insulation layer. However, over more recent years investigations on thermal and acoustical features has led to the development of new improved bricks and blocks that no longer need these insulation layers. Traditional masonry units (fired-clay bricks, concrete or earth-based blocks) that don't offer improved performance in terms of thermal and acoustical insulation are a symbol of a low-technology past, that are far removed from the demands of sustainable construction.This book provides an up-to-date state-of-the-art review on the eco-efficiency of masonry units, particular emphasis is placed on the design, properties, performance, durability and LCA of these materials. Since masonry units are also an excellent way to reuse bulk industrial waste the book will be important in the context of the Revised Waste Framework Directive 2008/98/EC which states that the minimum reuse and recycling targets for construction and demolition waste (CDW) should be at least 70% by 2020. On the 9th of March 2011 the European Union approved the Regulation (EU) 305/2011, known as the Construction Products Regulation (CPR) and it will be enforced after the 1st of July 2013. The future commercialization of construction materials in Europe makes their environmental assessment mandatory meaning that more information related to the environmental performance of building materials is much needed. - Provides an authoritative guide to the eco-efficiency of masonry units - Examines the reuse of waste materials - Covers a range of materials including, clay, cement, earth and pumice

Autoren/Hrsg.

Pacheco-Torgal, Fernando

Lourenco, Paulo B.

Labrincha, Joao

Chindaprasirt, Prinya

Kumar, S.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Front Cover;1
2;Related titles;3
3;Eco-efficient Masonry Bricks and Blocks;4
4;Copyright;5
5;Contents;6
6;List of contributors;14
7;Woodhead Publishing Series in Civil and Structural Engineering;16
8;Foreword;20
9;1 - Introduction to eco-efficient masonry bricks and blocks;22
9.1;1.1 Brief historical considerations on masonry bricks and blocks: past, present and future;22
9.2;1.2 Contributions of masonry bricks and blocks for eco-efficient construction;23
9.3;1.3 Outline of the book;27
9.4;References;30
10;Part 1 Design, properties and thermal performance of large and highly perforated fired-clay masonry bricks;32
10.1;2 - The design and mechanical performance of high-performance perforated fired masonry bricks;34
10.1.1;2.1 Introduction;34
10.1.2;2.2 Conception of fired clay units;35
10.1.3;2.3 Raw materials used in the production of perforated fired bricks;42
10.1.4;2.4 Mechanical characteristics of perforated fired bricks;44
10.1.5;2.5 Masonry assemblages with fired perforated brick masonry;48
10.1.6;2.6 Conclusions;60
10.1.7;2.7 Future trends;61
10.1.8;References;62
10.2;3 - Influence of large and highly perforated fired-clay bricks in the improvement of the equivalent thermal transmittance o ...;66
10.2.1;3.1 Introduction;66
10.2.2;3.2 Materials and methods;68
10.2.3;3.3 Results;73
10.2.4;3.4 Comparative analysis;76
10.2.5;3.5 Conclusions and future trends;80
10.2.6;References;80
10.3;4 - Traditional fired-clay bricks versus large and highly perforated fired-clay bricks masonry: influence on buildings ther ...;84
10.3.1;4.1 Introduction;84
10.3.2;4.2 Simulation tools for the assessment of energy performance of buildings;86
10.3.3;4.3 Reference building;86
10.3.4;4.4 Computational results and discussion;95
10.3.5;4.5 Future trends;98
10.3.6;Acknowledgments;99
10.3.7;References;99
11;Part 2 The design, properties and durability of fired-clay masonry bricks containing industrial wastes;104
11.1;5 - The properties and durability of clay fly ash-based fired masonry bricks;106
11.1.1;5.1 Introduction;106
11.1.2;5.2 Fly ash characterization;107
11.1.3;5.3 Fly ash-based fired clay masonry brick processing;110
11.1.4;5.4 Effects of fly ash on the technological properties;113
11.1.5;5.5 Durability;120
11.1.6;5.6 Future trends;120
11.1.7;Acknowledgments;121
11.1.8;References;121
11.2;6 - Types of waste, properties, and durability of pore-forming waste-based fired masonry bricks;124
11.2.1;6.1 Introduction;124
11.2.2;6.2 Industrial waste pore former and the properties of bricks;125
11.2.3;6.3 Agricultural waste pore formers and properties of bricks;133
11.2.4;6.4 Other waste pore formers;140
11.2.5;6.5 Future trends;143
11.2.6;6.6 Sources of further information and advice;143
11.2.7;References;143
11.3;7 - Types of waste, properties and durability of toxic waste-based fired masonry bricks;150
11.3.1;7.1 Introduction;150
11.3.2;7.2 Industrial waste classification used in fired masonry bricks;151
11.3.3;7.3 Comparison between clay minerals and the alternative raw materials;156
11.3.4;7.4 Firing conditions used in the manufacture of waste-based fired bricks;159
11.3.5;7.5 Characteristics of waste-based fired bricks;174
11.3.6;7.6 Current framework;194
11.3.7;7.7 Conclusions and future trends;198
11.3.8;Acknowledgments;199
11.3.9;References;199
12;Part 3 The design, properties and durability of Portland cement concrete masonry blocks;210
12.1;8 - The properties and durability of high-pozzolanic industrial by-products content concrete masonry blocks;212
12.1.1;8.1 Introduction;212
12.1.2;8.2 Mix composition and fresh and hardened properties of masonry concrete;213
12.1.3;8.3 High-pozzolanic industrial by-product content concrete masonry blocks;215
12.1.4;8.4 Future trends;228
12.1.5;8.5 Sources of further information and advice;229
12.1.6;References;229
12.2;9 - The properties and durability of autoclaved aerated concrete masonry blocks;236
12.2.1;9.1 Introduction;236
12.2.2;9.2 Types of lightweight concrete;236
12.2.3;9.3 Autoclaved aerated concrete (AAC) history and utilization as masonry blocks;237
12.2.4;9.4 Manufacturing and mechanism of autoclaved aerated concrete;238
12.2.5;9.5 Physical properties of autoclaved aerated concrete;239
12.2.6;9.6 Mechanical properties of autoclaved aerated concrete;240
12.2.7;9.7 Microstructure of autoclaved aerated concrete;243
12.2.8;9.8 Characterizations of autoclaved aerated concrete;244
12.2.9;9.9 Thermal conductivity of bottom ash cement autoclaved aerated concrete;245
12.2.10;9.10 Durability of autoclaved aerated concrete;247
12.2.11;9.11 Conclusions and future trends;248
12.2.12;9.12 Sources of further information and advice;249
12.2.13;References;249
12.3;10 - The design, properties, and performance of concrete masonry blocks with phase change materials;252
12.3.1;10.1 Introduction;252
12.3.2;10.2 Phase change material (PCM) candidates for buildings;254
12.3.3;10.3 Masonry brick designs for PCM;256
12.3.4;10.4 Analysis methods;261
12.3.5;References;267
12.4;11 - The design, properties and performance of shape optimized masonry blocks;270
12.4.1;11.1 Introduction;270
12.4.2;11.2 Searching for the optimal masonry block;271
12.4.3;11.3 Enhanced performance of masonry blocks using optimization techniques;276
12.4.4;11.4 Conclusions and future trends;288
12.4.5;References;288
13;Part 4 The design, properties and durability of geopolymeric masonry blocks;292
13.1;12 - The properties and durability of fly ash-based geopolymeric masonry bricks;294
13.1.1;12.1 Introduction;294
13.1.2;12.2 Mix design parameters;295
13.1.3;12.3 Mix details of fly ash-based geopolymeric masonry bricks;299
13.1.4;12.4 Mixing and curing processes;299
13.1.5;12.5 Physical and mechanical properties;300
13.1.6;12.6 Microstructure properties;303
13.1.7;12.7 Future research trends;306
13.1.8;References;307
13.2;13 - The properties and durability of mine tailings-based geopolymeric masonry blocks;310
13.2.1;13.1 Introduction;310
13.2.2;13.2 Mine tailings (MT)-based geopolymer;311
13.2.3;13.3 Synthesis and physical and mechanical properties of MT-based geopolymer masonry blocks;317
13.2.4;13.4 Durability of MT-based geopolymer masonry blocks;324
13.2.5;13.5 Environmental performance of MT-based geopolymer masonry blocks;326
13.2.6;13.6 Conclusions and future trends;327
13.2.7;References;328
13.3;14 - The properties and performance of red mud-based geopolymeric masonry blocks;332
13.3.1;14.1 Introduction;332
13.3.2;14.2 Characterization of red mud;334
13.3.3;14.3 Suitability of red mud for geopolymeric masonry block;336
13.3.4;14.4 Synergy of red mud with other waste;338
13.3.5;14.5 Production of masonry blocks;341
13.3.6;14.6 Summary and conclusions;347
13.3.7;Acknowledgment;348
13.3.8;References;348
13.4;15 - Design and properties of fly ash, ground granulated blast furnace slag, silica fume and metakaolin geopolymeric based ...;350
13.4.1;15.1 Introduction;350
13.4.2;15.2 Characteristics of geopolymer mortar;351
13.4.3;15.3 Static compaction device;352
13.4.4;15.4 Strength development with degree of saturation;353
13.4.5;15.5 Thermal cured geopolymer blocks;356
13.4.6;15.6 Ambient cured geopolymer blocks;363
13.4.7;15.7 Conclusions and future trends;377
13.4.8;References;378
14;Part 5 The properties and durability of earth-based masonry blocks;380
14.1;16 - The properties and durability of adobe earth-based masonry blocks;382
14.1.1;16.1 Introduction;382
14.1.2;16.2 Adobe technique and materials;382
14.1.3;16.3 Adobe blocks properties;387
14.1.4;16.4 Durability of adobe blocks;393
14.1.5;16.5 Future trends for eco-efficient constructions;394
14.1.6;16.6 Sources of further information and advice;395
14.1.7;References;396
14.2;17 - The properties of compressed earth-based (CEB) masonry blocks;400
14.2.1;17.1 Introduction;400
14.2.2;17.2 Properties of compressed earth-based masonry blocks;400
14.2.3;17.3 Integration of agricultural waste materials;407
14.2.4;17.4 Future trends;410
14.2.5;References;410
14.3;18 - The durability of compressed earth-based masonry blocks;414
14.3.1;18.1 Introduction;414
14.3.2;18.2 Factors influencing durability of earth-based masonry;415
14.3.3;18.3 Use of industrial and agricultural wastes and by-products;424
14.3.4;18.4 Tests and indicators of durability;429
14.3.5;18.5 Future trends;437
14.3.6;References;438
15;Part 6 Topology optimization and environmental performance;444
15.1;19 - Topology optimization for the development of eco-efficient masonry units;446
15.1.1;19.1 Introduction;446
15.1.2;19.2 The steady-state heat conduction problem;448
15.1.3;19.3 Optimal design for thermal insulation: problem formulation;451
15.1.4;19.4 Numerical investigations;455
15.1.5;19.5 Conclusion and future trends;463
15.1.6;References;464
15.2;20 - Environmental performance and energy assessment of fired-clay brick masonry;468
15.2.1;20.1 Introduction;468
15.2.2;20.2 Life cycle assessments of ceramic masonry units;469
15.2.3;20.3 Environmental and energy assessments in ceramic manufacturing plants;471
15.2.4;20.4 Conclusions;478
15.2.5;References;478
15.3;21 - Assessment of the energy and carbon embodied in straw and clay masonry blocks;482
15.3.1;21.1 Introduction;482
15.3.2;21.2 Current materials and building efficiency in the region;483
15.3.3;21.3 Farming walls;487
15.3.4;21.4 Straw and clay blocks;492
15.3.5;21.5 Conclusions and future trends;498
15.3.6;Acknowledgments;499
15.3.7;References;499
15.4;22 - Earth-block versus sandcrete-block houses: embodied energy and CO2 assessment;502
15.4.1;22.1 Background;502
15.4.2;22.2 Embodied energy and CO2: an overview;503
15.4.3;22.3 Embodied energy and CO2-related studies;505
15.4.4;22.4 Assessment methodology;506
15.4.5;22.5 The description of the object of the assessment and system boundary;507
15.4.6;22.6 The methods of assessment;510
15.4.7;22.7 Data collection methods;511
15.4.8;22.8 Inventory sources;511
15.4.9;22.9 Mathematical models underpinning the process analysis approach;512
15.4.10;22.10 Calculations and the use of tools;513
15.4.11;22.11 Data aggregation;513
15.4.12;22.12 Assessments of embodied energy and CO2: case studies' applications;514
15.4.13;22.13 Validation of results using building information modeling (BIM) software;520
15.4.14;22.14 Discussion and analysis;522
15.4.15;22.15 Conclusions;531
15.4.16;References;532
16;Index;536

Leseproben

1

Introduction to eco-efficient masonry bricks and blocks

F. Pacheco-Torgal     University of Minho, Braga, Portugal

Abstract

Although masonry units have been used for several millennia they still are and will continue to be widely used construction materials around the world. This chapter provides brief historical facts on masonry bricks and blocks. Brick production data of several countries is included. The contributions of these materials for eco-efficient construction are described. This chapter includes the contribution for the reduction of heat energy needs for buildings, the reduction of embodied energy and also the production of masonry bricks and blocks with the incorporation of industrial wastes. An outline of the book is included.

Keywords

Adobe; Compressed earth blocks; Concrete blocks; Eco-efficient construction; Embodied energy; Energy efficiency; Fired-clay bricks; Masonry; Waste reuse

1.1. Brief historical considerations on masonry bricks and blocks: past, present and future

The first masonry units were based on dried mud and were used for the first time around 8000 BC in Mesopotamia, an area bordered by the Tigris and Euphrates rivers stretching from Southeast Turkey, Northern Syria, and Iraq reaching the Persian Gulf (Pacheco-Torgal & Jalali, 2011).

Today, earth masonry units (adobe or compressed earth blocks) still represent a large share of the built environment. Between one-third up to 50 percent of the world's population lives in earth-based dwellings (Guillaud, 2008). The majority of earth construction is located in less developed countries, however, this kind of construction can also be found in Germany, France or even the United Kingdom (Hall, Lindsay, & Krayenhoff, 2012).

As to the fired-clay bricks, their use goes back to around 3000 BC (Lynch, 1994). Even the Roman civilization has left several buildings constructed with fired-clay bricks, for example, the library of Celsus in Ephesus built in 117 AD.

The compressive strength and durability to weathering of fired-clay bricks have made them a widely used construction material for thousands of years. An excellent source on brick history can be found in the book Brick: A World History by Campbell and Pryce (2003). It's worth mentioning that this book has an excessive focus on brick masonry's grand architectural features and is less focused on the engineered aspects of brick masonry. Common clay-fired bricks still serve as the base of recent and amazing buildings (Figure 1.1), highlighting the notorious words of the architect Louis Khan on this building material (Scully, 1993).

With the appearance of Portland cement in the twenty-first century, masonry concrete blocks emerged as an alternative to fired-clay bricks, although the latter are still predominant to a large extent. For instance in the United Kingdom, concrete blocks represent only around five percent of the total masonry units production (Bingel & Bown, 2009).

Because of the high kiln-firing temperatures, the fired-clay industry has high energy consumption and is responsible for high greenhouse gas emissions (GHG). Creation of fired-clay bricks has an energy consumption that is almost 300% higher than the energy consumption of concrete blocks (Reddy & Jagadish, 2003). Taking into account the lower embodied energy of concrete blocks, it's expected that in the future this material will gain a higher market share. Still, masonry fired-clay bricks and concrete blocks are and will continue to be widely used construction materials around the world, even in highly developed countries. According to a report forecast (Freedonia Group, 2010), US demand for fired-clay brick and concrete block products is projected to increase nearly twelve percent annually from a weak 2009 base to 12.4 billion units in 2014 (66% clay bricks and 37% concrete blocks). This represents just a small proportion of the annual worldwide production. Machine-made brick production, using automated kilns, is approximately 125 billion bricks. China alone is responsible for 100 billion units. Around 91% of the total brick production (1391 billion units) concerns handmade bricks. China and India are the major producers of handmade bricks, respectively, with 700 billion and 144 billion units respectively. The remaining countries are responsible for the production of 422 billion units (Habla, 2014; Sabapathy & Maithel, 2013). This leads to the exploitation of hundreds of millions of tons of nonrenewable resources and, to make things worse, in the next decades the brick (and block) demand will continue to rise just because the building construction industry in less developed countries will also rise steadily (until 2030 urban land cover will increase by 1.2 million km2 (Seto, Buneralp, & Hutyra, 2012)) to deal with the dramatic increase of urban population (in the next 40 years, urban population will be about 3000 million people (WHO, 2014)).

Figure 1.1 Indian Institute of Management, Ahmedabad (Louis Khan, 1962–1974).

1.2. Contributions of masonry bricks and blocks for eco-efficient construction

The concept of eco-efficiency was firstly coined in the book Changing Course (Schmidheiny, 1992) in the context of the 1992 Earth Summit process. This concept includes “the development of products and services at competitive prices that meet the needs of humankind with quality of life, while progressively reducing their environmental impact and consumption of raw materials throughout their life cycle, to a level compatible with the capacity of the planet.”

In the last 10 years, around 1000 papers were published in Scopus journals related to masonry units. The terms “eco-efficiency” or “eco-efficient” were mentioned in only in 0.3% of those papers, meaning that the eco-efficiency concept has not yet successfully entered in the masonry research field. This is especially disturbing in the context of the major environmental threats faced by our planet and the major environmental impacts of the construction industry. Since energy efficiency improvements have the greatest potential of any single strategy to abate global GHG emissions, a major worldwide environmental problem, from the energy sector (IEA, 2012), and since the building sector is a large energy user responsible for about 40% of the European Union's total final energy consumption (Lechtenbohmer and Schuring, 2011), this means that energy efficiency is a priority for eco-efficient construction. The Energy Road Map 2050 (COM (2011), 885/2) confirmed that higher energy efficiency in new and existing buildings is key for the transformation of the EU's energy system. The European Energy Performance of Buildings Directive 2002/91/EC (EPBD) was recast in the form of the 2010/31/EU by the European Parliament on 19 May 2010. One of the new aspects of the EPBD, which reflects an ambitious agenda on the reduction of the energy consumption, is the introduction of the concept of nearly zero-energy building (Pacheco-Torgal, Cabeza, Mistretta, Kaklauskas, & Granqvist, 2013).

Since walls are the major surface areas of the buildings through which considerable amounts of heat are exchanged between the interior and the external environment, the use of masonry units with improved thermal conductivity contributes to the reduction of heat losses in buildings. Therefore, reducing heat energy needs represents an important contribution for eco-efficient construction. A simple way to achieve that concerns the pore forming technique. It takes advantage of the fact that during the firing stage the combustion of organic matter (sawdust, tobacco residues, grass waste, sawdust, cork dust, paper sludge) leads to the formation of micro-pores. This technique allows for the reduction of the density of fired-clay bricks with organic additions resulting in new bricks with an increased thermal resistance. A more efficient technique encompasses the improvement of the design of the cross-section of masonry units in order to reduce their mass and increase the thermal resistance (minimize their thermal transmittance or U-value). Intense research efforts in this field have turned traditional, thick masonry units into highly perforated ones. This subject is important enough to merit the attention of several chapters in this book. State-of-the-art technology on the cross-section design of fired-clay bricks and lightweight concrete blocks allows single-leaf masonry walls with high thermal performance to be built (Figure 1.2).

In some European countries, these masonry units allow for walls without any additional thermal insulation materials like extruded polystyrene, rigid foam of poly-isocyanurate or polyurethane. These insulation materials are associated with negative impacts in terms of toxicity. Polystyrene, for example, contains antioxidant additives and ignition retardants. Additionally, its production involves the generation of benzene and chlorofluorocarbons. On the other hand, polyurethane is obtained from isocyanates, which are widely known for their tragic association with the Bhopal disaster. Besides, it releases toxic fumes when subjected to fire (Pacheco-Torgal, Fucic, & Jalali, 2012). These masonry units are also specially indicated for load-bearing structures, even those located in areas prone to seismic risks (Lourenço, Vasconcelos, Medeiros, & Gouveia,...