Pareek / Sopory / Bohnert Abiotic Stress Adaptation in Plants

Physiological, Molecular and Genomic Foundation
1. Auflage 2009
ISBN: 978-90-481-3112-9
Verlag: Springer Netherlands
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 526 Seiten

Environmental insults such as extremes of temperature, extremes of water status as well as deteriorating soil conditions pose major threats to agriculture and food security. Employing contemporary tools and techniques from all branches of science, attempts are being made worldwide to understand how plants respond to abiotic stresses with the aim to help manipulate plant performance that will be better suited to withstand these stresses. This book on abiotic stress attempts to search for possible answers to several basic questions related to plant responses towards abiotic stresses. Presented in this book is a holistic view of the general principles of stress perception, signal transduction and regulation of gene expression. Further, chapters analyze not only model systems but extrapolate interpretations obtained from models to crops. Lastly, discusses how stress-tolerant crop or model plants have been or are being raised through plant breeding and genetic engineering approaches. Twenty three chapters, written by international authorities, integrate molecular details with overall plant structure and physiology, in a text-book style, including key references.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Pareek, Ashwani

Sopory, S. K.

Bohnert, Hans J.

Govindjee

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Contents;6
2;Preface;13
3;Chapter 1;37
3.1;Abiotic Tolerance and Crop Improvement;37
3.1.1;I Introduction;38
3.1.1.1;A Hunter Evolves as Collector and Cultivator;38
3.1.1.2;B Projected Food Demands;39
3.1.1.3;C What Does Stress Mean to an Agriculturalist?;39
3.1.2;II Types of Abiotic Stress in Plants;39
3.1.3;III High Temperature Stress;39
3.1.3.1;A Temperature Periodicity;40
3.1.3.2;B Temperature-Induced Male Sterility;40
3.1.3.3;C High Temperature and Heat Stress;40
3.1.3.4;D Impact on Quality of the Harvest;41
3.1.4;IV Cold and Frost Stress;42
3.1.5;V Water Deficit Stress;43
3.1.5.1;A Effect on Root Pattern;43
3.1.5.2;B Effect on Development;43
3.1.5.3;B Effect on Fertility Status;44
3.1.5.4;C Tolerance to Moisture Stress;44
3.1.6;VI Water Logging Stress;44
3.1.6.1;A Flood Tolerance in Rice;44
3.1.6.1.1;1 Role of Root Aerenchyma;45
3.1.6.2;B Effect on Fruit Crops;45
3.1.7;VII Soil-Related Stresses;45
3.1.7.1;A Impact on Soil Microbes;46
3.1.8;VIII Climate Change and Stress in Plants;46
3.1.9;IX Conclusions;47
3.2;References;47
4;Chapter 2;49
4.1;Sensors and Signal Transducers of Environmental Stress in Cyanobacteria;49
4.1.1;I Introduction;50
4.1.2;II Potential Sensors and Signal Transducers in Cyanobacteria;51
4.1.3;III Involvement of Two-Component Regulatory Systems in Signal Perception and Transduction during Exposure to Environmental St;52
4.1.3.1;A Positive and Negative Regulation of Gene Expression;52
4.1.3.2;B Most Two-Component Systems Regulate Stress-Inducible Gene Expression in a Positive Manner;53
4.1.3.2.1;1 The Hik33-Rre26 System Regulates the Expression of Cold-Inducible Genes;53
4.1.3.2.2;2 Five Two-Component Systems Contribute to the Perception and Transduction of Salt-Stress and Hyperosmotic-Stress Signals bu;56
4.1.3.2.3;3 Hik33 is a Major Contributor to Signal Transduction during Oxidative Stress;56
4.1.3.2.4;4 Several Hiks Are Involved in the Perception and Transduction of Light-Stress Signals;57
4.1.3.2.5;5 The Hik7-Rre29 System Regulates Gene Expression in Response to Phosphate Limitation;57
4.1.3.2.6;6 The Hik30-Rre33 System Regulates Gene Expression in Response to Excess Nickel Ions;58
4.1.3.3;C Negative Regulation and Its Involvement in the Transduction of Manganese-Limitation and Heat-Stress Signals;58
4.1.3.3.1;1 The Hik27-Rre16 System Negatively Regulates Gene Expression in Response to Manganese Limitation;58
4.1.3.3.2;2 Hik34 Is Involved in Control of the Heat–Stress Response;59
4.1.3.3.3;3 Hik20 Is Involved in the Regulation of Expression of the kpdABC Operon;59
4.1.4;IV Other Potential Sensors and Transducers of Environmental Signals;59
4.1.4.1;A Serine/Threonine Protein Kinases, Tyrosine Protein Kinases and Protein Phosphatases;59
4.1.4.2;B Sigma Factors and Transcription Factors;60
4.1.4.3;C Supercoiling of DNA Is Involved in the Perception of Stress Signals and the Regulation of Gene Expression;60
4.1.5;V Conclusions and Perspectives;61
4.2;References;62
5;Chapter 3;66
5.1;Stress Signaling I: The Role of Abscisic Acid (ABA);66
5.1.1;I Introduction;68
5.1.2;II Initial Perception of the Stress;68
5.1.3;III ABA Receptors;69
5.1.3.1;A G Protein-Coupled Receptor-Like Protein;69
5.1.3.2;B Genomes Uncoupled 5/Mg Chelatase H (GUN5/CHLH);70
5.1.3.3;C Flowering Control Locus A (FCA);71
5.1.3.4;D ABA Receptors in Animals;72
5.1.4;IV Transduction of the Stress Signal;72
5.1.4.1;A Second Messengers;72
5.1.4.2;B MAPK Signaling Components;74
5.1.4.3;C Sucrose Non-fermenting-Related Protein Kinase 2 (SnRK2) Proteins;74
5.1.4.4;D Phosphatases;75
5.1.4.5;E Protein Modification;76
5.1.5;V Regulation of Abiotic Stresses at the Level of Gene Expression;77
5.1.5.1;A Cis-Acting Elements for ABA-dependent Gene Expression;77
5.1.6;Box 3.1 Systems Approaches to Stress Tolerance;79
5.1.7;VI Responses to Temperature Stresses;79
5.1.7.1;Cold Stress Responses;79
5.1.7.2;B Heat Stress Responses;81
5.1.8;VII Cross-Talk Between Abiotic and Biotic Stress Responses;82
5.1.9;Box 3.2 Comparative Genomics Approaches to Stress Tolerance;86
5.1.10;VIII Regulation of ABA Metabolism;87
5.2;References;90
6;Chapter 4;1
6.1;Stress Signaling II: Calcium Sensing and Signaling;1
6.1.1;I Introduction;108
6.1.2;II Calcium Signals;108
6.1.2.1;A Calcium Signatures;108
6.1.2.2;B Role of Calcium Signatures;109
6.1.2.3;C Calcium Channels, Pumps and Transporters;110
6.1.3;III Calcium Sensing and Signaling;110
6.1.3.1;A Sensor Relays;111
6.1.3.1.1;1 Calmodulin and Calmodulin-Like Sensors;111
6.1.3.1.1.1;1.1 Biochemical Functions and Regulation of Calmodulin;111
6.1.3.1.1.2;1.2 Calmodulin and Calmodulin-Like in Abiotic Stresses;111
6.1.3.1.1.3;1.3 Calmodulin-Binding Proteins in Abiotic Stresses;112
6.1.3.1.2;2 Calcineurin B-Like Sensors;113
6.1.3.1.2.1;2.1 Structure and Functions of Calcineurin B-Like proteins in Abiotic Stresses;113
6.1.3.1.2.2;2.2 Calcineurin B-Like-Interacting Protein Kinases in Abiotic Stresses;114
6.1.3.2;B Sensor Protein Kinases;115
6.1.3.2.1;1 Calcium-Dependent Protein Kinases;115
6.1.3.2.1.1;1.1 Structure and Regulation of Calcium-Dependent Protein Kinases;115
6.1.3.2.1.2;1.2 Calcium-Dependent Protein Kinases in Abiotic Stress Signaling;116
6.1.3.2.2;2 Calcium and Calmodulin-Dependent Protein Kinases;117
6.1.3.3;3 Other Calcium-Binding Proteins;117
6.1.4;IV Conclusions;118
6.2;References;118
7;Chapter 5;123
7.1;Stress Signaling III: Reactive Oxygen Species (ROS);123
7.1.1;I Introduction;124
7.1.2;II ROS Production and Control;124
7.1.2.1;A The Cytosol and ROS Movement;124
7.1.2.2;B Chloroplasts and Photosynthesis;125
7.1.2.3;C Peroxisomes and Photorespiration;125
7.1.2.4;D Mitochondrial Respiration;126
7.1.2.5;E Apoplastic ROS Production;126
7.1.2.6;F Antioxidant Regulation;126
7.1.3;III The Perception of ROS;127
7.1.3.1;A Redox Regulation and ROS Perception;127
7.1.3.2;B ROS Downstream Signaling Networks;129
7.1.4;IV Insights from Genetic and Genomic Strategies;129
7.1.4.1;A Genomics and Microarrays;129
7.1.4.2;B Transgenic Approaches;130
7.1.4.3;C 1O2 Signal Transduction;131
7.1.5;V Conclusions;131
7.2;References;132
8;Chapter 6;135
8.1;A Biotic or Abiotic Stress?;135
8.1.1;I Introduction;136
8.1.2;II Biotic Stress Versus Abiotic Stress;137
8.1.3;III General Stress Response;137
8.1.4;IV ABA and Jasmonic Acid: Usual Suspects for Interaction;139
8.1.5;V New Points of Interaction;141
8.1.5.1;A Auxin, Cytokinin and Brassinosteroids: New Stress Hormones?;141
8.1.5.1.1;1 Auxin;141
8.1.5.1.2;2 Cytokinin and Brassinosteroids;143
8.1.5.2;B Salicylic Acid;144
8.1.5.3;C DELLA Proteins as Central Integrators?;145
8.1.6;Conclusions;148
8.1.7;Box 6.1 Biotic Stress Pathways;148
8.2;References;149
9;Chapter 7;1
9.1;Protein Kinases and Phosphatases for Stress Signal Transduction in Plants1;1
9.1.1;I Introduction;157
9.1.2;II Receptor-Like Kinases;157
9.1.2.1;A Gene Families;157
9.1.2.2;B Functions;160
9.1.2.2.1;1 Disease Resistance;160
9.1.2.2.2;2 Hormone Signaling;162
9.1.2.2.3;3 Plant Development;163
9.1.3;III Mitogen Activated Protein (MAP) Kinases and MAPK Cascades;164
9.1.3.1;A Gene Families;164
9.1.3.1.1;1 MAPKs;164
9.1.3.1.2;2 MAPKKs;165
9.1.3.1.3;3 MAPKKKs;166
9.1.3.2;B Functions;166
9.1.3.2.1;1 Disease Resistance;166
9.1.3.2.2;2 Hormone Signaling;169
9.1.3.2.3;3 Abiotic Stress Signaling;170
9.1.4;IV Calcium-Activated Protein Kinases;170
9.1.4.1;A Gene Families;171
9.1.4.1.1;1 CDPKs;171
9.1.4.1.2;2 CRKs;172
9.1.4.1.3;3 CCaMKs and CaMKs;172
9.1.4.1.4;4 CIPKs and CBLs;172
9.1.4.2;B Functions of the CBL–CIPK Complexes;174
9.1.4.2.1;1 Osmotic Stress;174
9.1.4.2.2;2 Potassium Deficiency;175
9.1.4.2.3;3 High pH;175
9.1.4.2.4;4 Salt Stress;175
9.1.4.2.5;5 Novel Stress-Related Interactions;176
9.1.5;V Protein Phosphatases;177
9.1.5.1;A Gene Families;177
9.1.5.1.1;1 Protein Phosphatase P;177
9.1.5.1.2;2 Protein Phosphatase M;179
9.1.5.1.3;3 Protein Tyrosine Phosphatases;179
9.1.5.2;B Functions;180
9.1.5.2.1;1 Hormone Signaling and Development;180
9.1.5.2.2;2 MAPK Interactions;181
9.1.5.2.3;3 Novel Interactions;181
9.1.6;VI Conclusions;182
9.2;References;182
10;Chapter 8;196
10.1;Nitrogen Source Influences Root to Shoot Signaling Under Drought;196
10.1.1;I Introduction;197
10.1.2;II Nitrogen Source and Availability Influences Signaling Under Drought;197
10.1.2.1;A Ammonium and Nitrate Nutrition Methods;199
10.1.2.2;B Ammonium and Nitrate Fertilization Alters Response to Drought;199
10.1.3;III Charge Balance in the Xylem Accounts for Changes Induced by Nutrition and Drought;200
10.1.4;IV Ammonium and Nitrate Grown Plants: Changes in Xylem Sap Composition;201
10.1.4.1;A Ammonium Nutrition;201
10.1.4.2;B Nitrate Nutrition;202
10.1.5;V Conclusions;203
10.2;References;203
11;Chapter 9;206
11.1;Abiotic Stress Responses: Complexities in Gene Expression;206
11.1.1;I Introduction;207
11.1.2;II Signal Transduction Pathways Under Abiotic Stresses;208
11.1.3;Box 9.1 The Major Signaling Pathways Operative Under Abiotic Stress in Plants;208
11.1.3.1;MAPK Pathway;208
11.1.3.2;LEA Genes;208
11.1.3.3;SOS Pathway;209
11.1.3.4;ABA Mediated Pathway;209
11.1.4;III Resources for Identification of Novel Genes;209
11.1.5;IV Genomics-based Approaches for Understanding the Response of Plants Towards Abiotic Stresses;211
11.1.5.1;A Identification of QTLs for Tolerance to Abiotic Stresses;212
11.1.5.2;B Analysis of Transcript Profiles: Transcriptomics;212
11.1.5.2.1;1 Transcriptome Analysis using High-Throughput Techniques;214
11.1.5.2.1.1;1.1 Differential Display PCR;214
11.1.5.2.1.2;1.2 cDNA-Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism (AFLP);214
11.1.5.2.1.3;1.3 Subtractive Hybridization;215
11.1.5.2.1.4;1.4 Microarray;215
11.1.5.2.1.5;1.5 Serial Analysis of Gene Expression (SAGE);215
11.1.5.2.2;2 Transcriptional Profiling Reveals That Metabolic Re-Adjustment is a Hallmark of Abiotic Stress Response;215
11.1.5.2.2.1;2.1 Kinetics of Gene Expression Pattern: Early versus Late Responses;216
11.1.5.2.2.2;2.2 Kinetics of Gene Expression Patterns: Developmental Stage/Organ-specific Regulation;217
11.1.5.2.2.3;2.3 Cross Talk between Various Abiotic Stress Responses;218
11.1.5.3;C Large Scale Study of Proteins: Proteomics;218
11.1.5.4;D Metabolomics;221
11.1.6;Box 9.2 Recent Techniques Being Used for Analysis of Stress Response in Plants;213
11.1.6.1;Transcriptomics;213
11.1.6.2;Differential Display PCR;213
11.1.6.3;cDNA AFLP;213
11.1.6.4;Subtractive Hybridization;214
11.1.6.5;Microarray;214
11.1.6.6;SAGE;214
11.1.7;Box 9.3 Tools of Proteomics;219
11.1.7.1;Gas Chromatography;220
11.1.7.2;Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy;220
11.1.7.3;Yeast Two Hybrid System;220
11.1.8;V Interactome;221
11.1.8.1;A Interacting Partners of Two Component System;221
11.1.8.2;B High Throughput Yeast Two Hybrid Analysis;222
11.1.8.3;C Prediction of Protein–Protein Interactions Using Bioinformatics and Development of Protein Interactome Databases;223
11.1.9;VI Future Prospects;223
11.2;References;224
12;Chapter 10;228
12.1;Promoters and Transcription Factors in Abiotic Stress-Responsive Gene Expression;228
12.1.1;I Introduction;229
12.1.2;II Significant ABA-Independent Gene Expression Under Abiotic Stress;230
12.1.2.1;A DREB1/CBFs: Major Transcription Factors that Regulate Many Cold-Inducible Genes Involved in Stress Tolerance;231
12.1.2.2;B The DREB/DRE Regulons in Plants Other than Arabidopsis;232
12.1.2.3;C Cis-Acting Regulatory Elements and Transcription Factors that Function Upstream of DREB1/CBF;233
12.1.2.4;D DREB2 Proteins Function in Drought, High Salinity and Heat Stress-Responsive Gene Expression;233
12.1.3;III Other ABA-Independent Gene Expression Under Abiotic Stress;235
12.1.4;IV ABA-Responsive Gene Expression Under Abiotic Stresses;235
12.1.5;V Other Types of ABA-Dependent Gene Expression Under Abiotic Stresses;238
12.1.6;VI Conclusions and Future Perspectives;239
12.2;References;240
13;Chapter 11;246
13.1;Epigenetic Regulation: Chromatin Modeling and Small RNAs;246
13.1.1;I Introduction;248
13.1.2;II Epigenetics;248
13.1.2.1;A Chromatin Modeling;249
13.1.2.1.1;1 Histone Code;249
13.1.2.1.1.1;1.1 Acetylation;249
13.1.2.1.1.2;1.2 Methylation;250
13.1.2.1.1.3;1.3 Phosphorylation;250
13.1.2.1.1.4;1.4 ADP-Ribosylation;251
13.1.2.1.1.5;1.5 Biotinylation;251
13.1.2.1.1.6;1.6 Ubiquitination;251
13.1.2.1.1.7;1.7 Sumoylation;251
13.1.2.1.2;2 DNA Methylation;252
13.1.2.1.2.1;2.1 Box Essay: Analysis of DNA Methylation;253
13.1.2.1.2.1.1;2.1.1 Methylation-Specific Restriction Analysis;253
13.1.2.1.2.1.2;2.1.2 Methylated DNA Immunoprecipitation (MeDIP);253
13.1.2.1.2.1.3;2.1.3 Bisulfite Method;253
13.1.2.1.3;3 Interaction Between Histone Code and DNA Methylation;257
13.1.2.1.3.1;3.1 Small RNAs;258
13.1.3;Box 11.1 Sequencing Methods for Detecting Methylated Alleles;255
13.1.3.1;Direct DNA Sequencing;255
13.1.3.2;Pyrosequencing;255
13.1.3.3;Methylation-Specific PCR (MSP);255
13.1.3.4;Methylation-Sensitive Single-Strand Conformation Analysis (MS-SSCA);255
13.1.3.5;Methylation-Sensitive High Resolution Melting Analysis (MS-HRM);256
13.1.3.6;Methylation-Sensitive Single Nucleotide Primer Extension (MS-SnuPE);256
13.1.3.7;Base-Specific Cleavage Reaction Combined with MALDI-TOF Mass Spectrometry;256
13.1.3.8;Microarray-Based Methods;257
13.1.4;III Abiotic Stress-Induced Epigenetic Changes;259
13.1.4.1;A Abiotic Stress-Induced Changes in Histone Code;259
13.1.4.2;B Regulation of DNA Methylation by Abiotic Stresses;262
13.1.4.3;C siRNAs in Abiotic Stresses;263
13.1.4.4;D Transgeneration Stress Memory;263
13.1.5;Conclusions and Perspectives;264
13.2;References;265
14;Chapter 12;272
14.1;Ion Homeostasis;272
14.1.1;I Introduction;273
14.1.2;II The Need for Ion Homeostasis in Salt Tolerance;273
14.1.3;III Essential Components and Parameters of an ‘Ion Homeostat’;274
14.1.3.1;A Models for Plant Ion Homeostasis;274
14.1.3.2;B Driving Force and Fluxes;277
14.1.4;IV Strategies for Na+ Homeostasis;278
14.1.4.1;A Cellular Na+ Homeostasis;278
14.1.4.2;B Tissue Na+ Homeostasis;280
14.1.5;V Transporters Involved in Na+ Homeostasis;280
14.1.5.1;A Transporters Involved in Cellular Na+ Uptake;280
14.1.5.2;B Transporters Involved in Cellular Na+ Export;282
14.1.5.3;C Transporters Involved in Na+ Compartmentalization;282
14.1.5.4;D Transporters Involved in Long Distance Transport of Na+;283
14.1.6;VI Conclusions and Outlook;284
14.2;References;286
15;Chapter 13;290
15.1;Glutathione Homeostasis: Crucial for Abiotic Stress Tolerance in Plants;290
15.1.1;I Introduction;291
15.1.2;II Regulation of Biosynthesis, Turnover and Compartmentation of Glutathione;292
15.1.3;III Uptake and Transport of Glutathione;293
15.1.4;IV Quantification of Redox Status and its Modulation by Abiotic Stresses;294
15.1.5;V Changes in Glutathione Homeostasis in Plants Under Abiotic Stresses;294
15.1.5.1;A Salt Stress;295
15.1.5.2;B Water Deficit;297
15.1.5.3;C Low Temperature;297
15.1.5.4;D Ozone Toxicity;298
15.1.5.5;Heavy Metal Toxicity;299
15.1.6;VI Protein Oxidation Under Abiotic Stresses;300
15.1.7;VII Glutathione as Signaling Molecule and Role of Glutaredoxins;300
15.1.8;Crosstalk and Interaction with Other Biomolecules;303
15.1.9;Conclusions and Perspectives;305
15.2;References;305
16;Chapter 14;310
16.1;Water Balance and the Regulation of Stomatal Movements;310
16.1.1;I Introduction;311
16.1.2;II How Does Water Balance Affect Stomatal Movements?;312
16.1.2.1;A Water Balance Sensing and Information Transfer to Stomata;312
16.1.2.1.1;1 Stomatal Response to Limited Water Availability in Soils;312
16.1.2.1.1.1;1.1 An Early Root-to-Shoot Signal;312
16.1.2.1.1.2;1.2 ABA Is the Main Signal;312
16.1.2.1.1.3;1.3 The Hydraulic Signal;313
16.1.2.1.1.4;1.4 Additional Root-Sourced Chemical Signals Implicated in Stomatal Responses to Soil Water Status;314
16.1.2.1.2;2 Stomatal Response to Decreased Relative Air Humidity;314
16.1.2.2;B Regulation of Active ABA Concentrations by Water Balance;314
16.1.2.2.1;1 ABA Metabolism;314
16.1.2.2.2;2 ABA Transport and Sequestration;315
16.1.3;III Mechanism of Stomatal Movements and Its Regulation by Water Balance;315
16.1.3.1;A Cellular and Molecular Mechanisms of Stomatal Movements;315
16.1.3.1.1;1 Changes in Guard Cell Turgor are Responsible for Stomatal Movements;315
16.1.3.1.2;2 Channels and Transporters: Important Effectors Mediating Stomatal Movements;317
16.1.3.1.2.1;2.1 Anion Channels Triggered by ABA;317
16.1.3.1.2.2;2.2 Proton Pumps;317
16.1.3.1.2.3;2.3 Potassium Channels;317
16.1.3.1.2.4;2.4 Effectors of Osmotic Fluxes Across the Tonoplast;318
16.1.3.1.2.5;2.5 Carbohydrate Regulation;318
16.1.3.1.3;3 Reorganization of Membranes and Cytoskeleton;318
16.1.3.2;B Signal Transduction Processes Controlling Stomatal Aperture;319
16.1.3.2.1;1 Abscisic Acid Signal Transduction Mechanisms in Guard Cells;319
16.1.3.2.1.1;1.1 Abscisic Acid Perception;319
16.1.3.2.1.2;1.2 Genetic Screens Identify Kinases and Phosphatases;319
16.1.3.2.1.3;1.3 Intracellular Calcium;320
16.1.3.2.1.4;1.4 Reactive Oxygen Species and Redox Control;321
16.1.3.2.1.5;1.5 pH;321
16.1.3.2.1.6;1.6 Lipid Derived Signaling Intermediates;321
16.1.3.2.1.7;1.7 G Proteins;322
16.1.3.2.2;2 Guard Cell Signal Transduction Network;322
16.1.3.2.3;3 Other Stomatal Closing Stimuli Cross-Talk Through the Guard Cell Signaling Network;322
16.1.3.2.3.1;3.1 Extracellular Calcium;322
16.1.3.2.3.2;3.2 Carbon Dioxide Signaling;323
16.1.4;IV Genes and Promoters of Interest to Manipulate Stomatal Function in Crop Plants;324
16.1.5;V Conclusions;324
16.2;References;325
17;Chapter 15;333
17.1;Responses to Macronutrient Deprivation;333
17.1.1;I Introduction;335
17.1.2;II Nitrogen Uptake and Assimilation;335
17.1.2.1;A Nitrogen in the Environment;335
17.1.2.2;B Transport of Nitrogen-Containing Compounds;336
17.1.2.3;C Regulation of Transport;339
17.1.2.4;D Chlamydomonas Nitrate and Nitrite Reductase;340
17.1.2.5;E Glutamine Synthetase;341
17.1.3;III Responses to Sustained Nitrogen Starvation;342
17.1.4;IV Sulfur Uptake and Assimilation;342
17.1.4.1;A Sulfur in the Environment;342
17.1.4.2;B Sulfate Acquisition and Transport;343
17.1.4.2.1;1 Hydrolysis;343
17.1.4.2.2;2 Transport Across the Plasma Membrane;344
17.1.4.2.3;3 Transport into the Chloroplast;345
17.1.4.3;C Reductive Assimilation;346
17.1.5;V Control of Sulfur Starvation Responses;348
17.1.5.1;A Specific and General Responses;348
17.1.5.2;B Genes Responsive to Sulfur Deprivation;348
17.1.5.3;C Genes Controlling Sulfur Deprivation Responses;349
17.1.5.4;D Sequence of Regulatory Events;351
17.1.6;VI Phosphate Uptake and Assimilation;353
17.1.6.1;A Phosphate in the Environment;353
17.1.6.2;B Phosphatases;354
17.1.6.3;C Phosphate Transport;354
17.1.6.4;D Polyphosphate Synthesis and Mobilization;355
17.1.6.5;E Nucleic Acids;355
17.1.6.6;F Phospholipids;356
17.1.6.7;G Phosphorus Deficiency and Photosynthesis;356
17.1.7;VII Control of Phosphorus Starvation Responses;356
17.1.7.1;A Mutant Isolation;356
17.1.7.1.1;1 PSR1 (Regulator in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii Associated with Phosphate Stress Response);357
17.1.7.1.2;2 Low Phosphorus Bleaching Strains;358
17.1.7.2;B PSR1-Dependent Gene Expression;358
17.1.7.2.1;1 Phosphatases;358
17.1.7.2.2;2 Transporters;359
17.1.7.2.3;3 Other Genes;359
17.1.7.2.4;4 “Electron Valves”;359
17.1.7.3;C Sequence of Regulatory Events;360
17.1.8;VIII Conclusions;360
17.2;References;361
18;Chapter 16;375
18.1;Osmolyte Regulation in Abiotic Stress;375
18.1.1;I Introduction;376
18.1.2;II Osmolytes and their Types;376
18.1.2.1;A Glycine Betaine;377
18.1.2.2;B Ectoine;379
18.1.2.3;C Trehalose;379
18.1.2.4;D Proline;379
18.1.2.5;E Myo-inositol and Methylated Inositols;379
18.1.3;III Regulation of Osmolyte Concentration in Plants: Cell and Organ Level;380
18.1.3.1;A Regulation of Proline Metabolism Under Stress;380
18.1.3.2;B Glycine Betaine in Stress Regulation;382
18.1.3.3;C Myo-Inositol and Its Role in Stress Tolerance;382
18.1.4;IV Role of Compatible Solutes/Osmolytes in Other Organisms and Animal Cells;384
18.1.4.1;A Organic Osmolytes in Renal Cells;384
18.1.4.2;B Organic Osmolytes in External Epithelial cells;386
18.1.4.3;C Organic Osmolytes in Brain cells;386
18.1.5;V Mechanism of Action of Osmolytes;387
18.1.5.1;A Osmolytes as Chaperones;388
18.1.5.2;B Osmolytes in Stabilization of Proteins;389
18.1.6;VI Unique Osmolytes: Glucosylglycerol/Diphosphoinositols;390
18.1.7;VII Transgenics with Compatible Solutes for Salinity Stress Tolerance;391
18.1.8;VIII Conclusions;393
18.2;References;393
19;Chapter 17;397
19.1;Programmed Cell Death in Plants;397
19.1.1;I Introduction;398
19.1.2;II Anatomy of Cell Death;399
19.1.3;III Biochemistry of Cell Death;400
19.1.4;IV Role of Vacuole;401
19.1.5;V Role of Mitochondrion;401
19.1.6;VI Role of Chloroplast;402
19.1.7;VII Signals in Cell Death;403
19.1.8;VIII Cell Death Regulator;404
19.1.9;IX Conclusions;405
19.2;References;405
20;Chapter 18;411
20.1;Varietal Improvement for Abiotic Stress Tolerance in Crop Plants: Special Reference to Salinity in Rice;411
20.1.1;I. Introduction;413
20.1.2;The Need for Abiotic Stress-Tolerant Cultivars;413
20.1.3;III Past Breeding Efforts;414
20.1.4;IV Limits of Plant Stress Tolerance;416
20.1.4.1;A Intercrop Variability;416
20.1.4.2;B Intracrop Variability (Intervarietal/Genotypic Tolerance);416
20.1.5;V Breeding Salinity Tolerance with High Yield;417
20.1.6;VI The Concept of Heritability;418
20.1.7;VII Genetics of Salt Tolerance;420
20.1.7.1;A Inheritance Studies;420
20.1.7.2;B Association Studies;420
20.1.7.3;C Gene Action and Heritability;421
20.1.7.4;D Combining Ability Analysis;421
20.1.7.5;E Heterosis;421
20.1.8;VIII Breeding Methodology;422
20.1.8.1;A Conventional Approaches;422
20.1.8.1.1;1 Selection and Introduction;422
20.1.8.1.2;2 Pedigree Method;422
20.1.8.1.3;3 Modified Bulk Pedigree Method;422
20.1.8.1.4;4 Shuttle Breeding;422
20.1.8.1.5;5 Mutation Breeding;422
20.1.8.1.6;6 Diallel Selective Mating System Supplemented by MAS;423
20.1.8.2;B DSMS Methodology;423
20.1.8.3;C Non-conventional Approaches;425
20.1.8.3.1;1 F1 Anther Culture Technique;425
20.1.8.3.2;2 MAS and Transgenics;425
20.1.9;IX Screening Methodology;425
20.1.9.1;A Screening Techniques;425
20.1.9.1.1;1 In-situ Field Evaluation;425
20.1.9.1.2;2 Screening in Microplots;425
20.1.9.1.3;3 Screening in Pots;426
20.1.9.1.4;4 Salinity Screening in Solution Culture;426
20.1.9.1.5;5 Screening in Trays;427
20.1.9.2;B Screening Criteria;427
20.1.9.2.1;1 Morphological Parameters;428
20.1.9.2.2;2 Germination Parameters;428
20.1.9.2.3;3 Plant Survival;428
20.1.9.2.4;4 Injury Score;428
20.1.9.2.5;5 Phenotypic Expression;428
20.1.9.2.6;6 Growth Parameters;428
20.1.9.2.7;7 Grain Yield;428
20.1.9.2.8;8 Stability of Traits over Environments;428
20.1.9.2.9;9 Mean Tolerance Index (MTI);428
20.1.9.2.10;10 Associated Traits;429
20.1.9.2.11;11 Physiological and Biochemical Parameters;429
20.1.9.3;C Selection Pressure;429
20.1.10;X Breeding Strategy to Enhance Salinity Tolerance Through Pyramiding of Mechanisms;429
20.1.11;XI Testing Approaches for Varietal Adaptability;430
20.1.11.1;A Station Trials;430
20.1.11.2;B Target Area-Based/Network Approach;430
20.1.11.3;C Farmer’s Participatory Approach;430
20.1.12;XII Factors Affecting Salt Tolerance;432
20.1.12.1;A Agronomic Factors;432
20.1.12.2;B Climatic Factors;432
20.1.12.3;C Soil Texture and Structure;433
20.1.12.4;D Rainfall;433
20.1.13;XIII Collaborative Research;433
20.1.14;XIV Rice Varieties Developed for Salt Tolerance;434
20.1.15;XV Impact of Salt-Tolerant Rice Varieties;435
20.1.15.1;A Direct Impact;435
20.1.15.2;B Indirect Impact;435
20.1.16;XVI Conclusions;435
20.1.17;XVII Recommendations and Future Lines of Research;436
20.2;References;436
21;Chapter 19;440
21.1;Transgenic Approaches;440
21.1.1;I Introduction;441
21.1.2;II Transgenic Approaches for Producing Abiotic Stress Tolerant Plants;442
21.1.2.1;A Engineering Genes for Stress Signaling;442
21.1.2.1.1;1 Sensors of Stress Signal;442
21.1.2.1.2;2 Downstream Signaling Cascades;443
21.1.2.1.2.1;Protein Kinases;443
21.1.2.1.2.2;Calcium-Dependent Proteins;444
21.1.2.1.2.3;SOS Signaling;445
21.1.2.2;B Engineering Genes of Transcriptional Regulation;445
21.1.2.2.1;1 Zinc Finger Proteins;446
21.1.2.2.2;2 Ethylene Responsive Element Binding Proteins (EREBPs);447
21.1.2.2.3;3 Dehydration Responsive Element Binding Proteins/C-Repeat Binding Factors;448
21.1.2.2.4;4 MYB and MYC Transcription Factors;449
21.1.2.2.5;5 NAC Proteins;449
21.1.2.2.6;6 Other Transcription Factors and DNA/RNA Binding Proteins;450
21.1.2.3;C Engineering Genes for Redox Regulation;450
21.1.2.4;D Engineering Genes for Osmotic Regulation;452
21.1.2.5;E Engineering Genes for Cellular Protection;457
21.1.2.6;F Engineering Genes for Ionic Balance;458
21.1.3;III Future Perspectives;461
21.2;References;461
22;Chapter 20;474
22.1;Marker Assisted Breeding;474
22.1.1;I Introduction;475
22.1.2;II Molecular Markers as Tools for Dissecting Quantitative Traits;476
22.1.2.1;A Dissecting Complex Traits Using QTL Mapping;477
22.1.2.2;B Gene Discovery: Genomics and Positional Cloning;477
22.1.2.3;C Strategies for Marker-Assisted Selection;478
22.1.3;III Case Studies from a Model Crop: MAS for Abiotic Stress Tolerance in Rice;480
22.1.3.1;A Flooding;481
22.1.3.2;B Salinity;481
22.1.3.3;C Phosphorus Deficiency;483
22.1.3.4;D Drought;484
22.1.4;IV Future Perspectives;485
22.1.4.1;A Association Mapping for Abiotic Stress Tolerance;485
22.1.4.2;B Variety Development and Gene Deployment;486
22.1.4.3;C Bioinformatics Supporting Molecular Breeding;487
22.1.4.3.1;1 Integrating Marker Genotype and Plant Phenotype Data;487
22.1.4.3.2;2 Using a Gene and Plant Ontology;487
22.1.4.3.3;3 Databases for the Next Generation of Plant Breeders;488
22.1.5;V Conclusions;488
22.1.6;Box 20.1 How Will New Marker Technologies Impact Marker-Assisted Breeding?;477
22.2;References;489
23;Chapter 21;493
23.1;Stress, Mutators, Mutations and Stress Resistance;493
23.1.1;I Introduction-Stress Induced Changes in Mutation Frequency;494
23.1.2;II Mutator Genes;494
23.1.2.1;Mutators in Bacteria;494
23.1.2.2;B Mutators in Eukaryotes;496
23.1.2.3;C Organellar Mutators;497
23.1.3;III Mutators in Stress Resistance – Implications;498
23.1.4;Genetic, Circumstantial and Speculative Evidence for Mutators in Resistance to Stress;499
23.1.5;Can Stress Increase the Mutation Frequency to Resistance?;500
23.1.6;VI Conclusions;502
23.2;References;503
24;Chapter 22;506
24.1;Systems Biology of Abiotic Stress: The Elephant and the Blind Men;506
24.1.1;I Introduction;507
24.1.2;II First Responders: Stomatal Guard Cells;508
24.1.2.1;A Signaling;509
24.1.2.2;B Vesicular Trafficking;510
24.1.2.3;C Cytoskeletal Restructuring;511
24.1.3;III A Systems View of the Stress Response: The Elephant;511
24.1.3.1;A The Stomate as a System;511
24.1.3.1.1;1 Integrating Signal, Structure and Function;511
24.1.3.2;B Stress Beyond the Stomate;515
24.1.3.2.1;C Wherein Lies the Specificity?;516
24.1.4;IV The Future;516
24.2;References;516
25;Chapter 23;524
25.1;Global Climate Change, Stress and Plant Productivity;524
25.1.1;I Introduction;525
25.1.2;II Elevated Carbon Dioxide;525
25.1.2.1;A Photosynthesis;526
25.1.2.2;B Respiration;526
25.1.2.3;C Transpiration;527
25.1.2.4;D Nitrogen Assimilation;527
25.1.2.5;E Water Use Efficiency;528
25.1.2.6;F Crop Productivity;529
25.1.3;III High Temperature;530
25.1.3.1;A Oxidative Stress;531
25.1.3.2;B Photosynthesis;531
25.1.3.3;C Crop Phenology;532
25.1.3.4;D Crop Productivity;534
25.1.4;IV Ultraviolet Radiation;535
25.1.5;V Troposphoric Ozone;536
25.1.6;VI Biotic Stress;536
25.1.7;VII Conclusions and Future Prospects;537
25.2;References;538
26;Subject Index;543