Pattee / Cosslett / Engström X-Ray Optics and X-Ray Microanalysis

1. Auflage 2013
ISBN: 978-1-4832-7703-5
Verlag: Elsevier Science & Techn.
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 640 Seiten, Web PDF

X-ray Optics and X-ray Microanalysis covers the proceedings of the Symposium on X-ray Optics and X-ray Microanalysis, held at Stanford University on August 22-24, 1962. The book focuses on X-ray microscopy, microradiography, radiation and irradiation, and X-ray microanalysis. The selection first offers information on the methods of X-ray microscopy and X-ray absorption microanalysis. Discussions focus on X-ray scanning microscopy, contact microradiography, point projection microscopy, and total dry-weight determinations. The text then takes a look at X-ray microanalysis in biology and medicine; electron microscopic enlargements of X-ray absorption micrographs; and automation in microradiography. The publication examines the production of Fresnel zone plates for extreme ultraviolet and soft X radiation; quantitative microradiographic studies of human epidermis; and irradiation effect on total organic nerve-cell material determined by integrating X-ray absorption. The manuscript then reviews the calculation of fluorescence excited by characteristic radiation in the X-ray microanalyzer and the method for calculating the absorption correction in electron-probe microanalysis. The selection is a valuable reference for readers interested in X-ray technology.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Pattee, H. H.

Cosslett, V. E.

Engström, Arne

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Front Cover;1
2;X-Ray Optics and X-Ray Microanalysis;4
3;Copyright Page;5
4;Table of Contents;14
5;List of Contributors;8
6;Preface;12
7;Chapter 1. Methods of X-Ray Microscopy;20
7.1;Reflection X-Ray Microscopy;21
7.2;Contact Microradiography;22
7.3;Point Projection Microscopy;24
7.4;X-Ray Scanning Microscopy;26
7.5;REFERENCES;29
8;Chapter 2. X-Ray Absorption Microanalysis;32
8.1;Total Dry-Weight Determinations;33
8.2;Elementary Analysis;38
8.3;Conclusion;40
8.4;REFERENCES;41
9;Chapter 3. X-Ray Microanalysis in Biology and Medicine;42
9.1;Elementary Analysis by X-Ray Absorption;43
9.2;The Determination of Mass and Water in Biological Tissues;46
9.3;X-Ray Microfluorescence Analysis;47
9.4;X-Ray Microdiffraction Procedures;48
9.5;Conclusion;50
10;Chapter 4. Electron Microscopic Enlargements of X-Ray Absorption Micrographs;52
10.1;Introduction;52
10.2;Electron Scattering contra Specimen Thickness;54
10.3;Experimental Correlation between Electron Contrast and X-Ray Specimen;57
10.4;Recorders for Soft X Rays;58
10.5;Exploratory X-Ray Recording;62
10.6;Summary;69
10.7;ACKNOWLEDGMENTS;69
10.8;REFERENCES;69
11;Chapter 5. Automation in Microradiography;72
11.1;REFERENCES;81
12;Chapter 6. Contrast-Controlled Reproduction and Enlargement of Microradiographic Negatives;82
12.1;REFERENCES;90
13;Chapter 7. Production of Fresnel Zone Plates for Extreme Ultraviolet and Soft X Radiation;92
13.1;Demagnification of Commercial Zone Plates;94
13.2;First Applications;96
13.3;REFERENCES;98
14;Chapter 8. Recent Developments in Field Emission Flash Radiography;100
14.1;REFERENCES;112
15;Chapter 9. Quantitative Microradiographic Studies of Human Epidermis;114
15.1;REFERENCES;117
16;Chapter 10. Irradiation Effect on Total Organic Nerve-Cell Material Determined by Integrating X-Ray Absorption;118
16.1;ACKNOWLEDGMENT;125
16.2;REFERENCES;125
17;Chapter 11. Histochemical X-Ray Absorption Measurement of Lipid in the Adrenal Gland of the Rat;126
17.1;ACKNOWLEDGMENT;127
17.2;REFERENCES;127
18;Chapter 12. X-Ray Microscopy of the Microvascular System of the Human Lung;128
18.1;Apparatus;129
18.2;Method;129
18.3;Results;130
18.4;Conclusions;139
18.5;Summary;140
18.6;ACKNOWLEDGMENT;140
18.7;REFERENCES;140
19;Chapter 13. Microangiography in Living Human Subject;142
19.1;REFERENCES;145
20;Chapter 14. Some Mineralogical and Technical Applications of Contact Microradiography with Fluorescent X Rays;146
20.1;REFERENCES;151
21;Chapter 15. Small-Angle X-Ray Scattering on an Absolute Scale;152
21.1;Introduction;152
21.2;General Principles;152
21.3;Experimental Problems and Apparatus;154
21.4;Theory;157
21.5;Examples;163
21.6;Discussion and Conclusion;173
21.7;REFERENCES;175
22;Chapter 16. Production, Detection, and Application of Ultrasoft X Rays;176
22.1;Introduction and Summary of Applications;176
22.2;The Production of Ultrasoft X Rays;179
22.3;Detection and Measurement of Ultrasoft X Rays;181
22.4;GENERAL BIBLIOGRAPHY;190
23;Chapter 17. The Spectral Distribution of the Radiation from a Microfocus X-Ray Tube with a Membrane Target;192
23.1;Abstract;192
23.2;Einleitung;192
23.3;Messapparatur;193
23.4;Vergleich des Photonenspektrums für Massiv-und Membranantikathode;193
23.5;Anteil der charakteristischen Strahlung an der Gesamtstrahlung einer Membranantikathode;196
23.6;Monochromasie der Ni-gefilterten Strahlung einer Cu-Membranantikathode;200
23.7;LITERATUR;201
24;Chapter 18. The Efficiency of Production of Characteristic X Radiation;204
24.1;Introduction;204
24.2;Experimental Work;204
24.3;Theoretical Efficiency Values;205
24.4;The Experimental Results;206
24.5;Conclusions;210
24.6;ACKNOWLEDGMENTS;211
24.7;REFERENCES;211
25;Chapter 19. An Efficient Spectrograph for the Study of X-Ray Spectra in the Range of 0.7 A;212
25.1;REFERENCES;216
26;Chapter 20. Optical Techniques Applied to the Study of X-Ray Wavelengths;218
26.1;Introduction;218
26.2;Total Reflection;219
26.3;Diffraction Gratings;220
26.4;Study of Grating Surface and Profile;221
26.5;X-Ray Diffraction Studies of Gratings;222
26.6;Experimental Results;224
26.7;Summary;231
26.8;ACKNOWLEDGMENTS;232
26.9;REFERENCES;232
27;Chapter 21. Effects of Polishing Imperfections on Specular Reflection of X Rays;234
27.1;Introduction;234
27.2;Theory of Scattering from a Rough Surface;235
27.3;Discussion of Experiments;240
27.4;Conclusion;245
27.5;REFERENCES;247
28;Chapter 22. Reflectance Measurements at Carbon-K and Beryllium-K Wavelengths;248
28.1;Introduction;248
28.2;Fresnel Equations;248
28.3;Description of the 44.6 A Apparatus;249
28.4;Reflection Curves Obtained at 44.6 A;252
28.5;Description of the Apparatus Used at 114 A;255
28.6;Reflection Curves Obtained at 114 A;256
28.7;REFERENCES;258
29;Chapter 23. Substratum Influence on the Reflectance of Aluminum Vacuum-Deposited Films for X Rays;260
29.1;Abstract;260
29.2;Einleitung;260
29.3;Das Interferenzdiagramm;261
29.4;Die Phasensprünge an den Grenzschichten;263
29.5;Das Reflexionsvermögen der Glasunterlage;264
29.6;LITERATUR;265
30;Chapter 24. Grazing-lncidence Telescopic Systems;266
30.1;Axially Symmetric Paraboloids;270
30.2;Aplanatic Soft X-Ray Telescopes;271
30.3;ACKNOWLEDGMENT;273
30.4;REFERENCES;273
31;Chapter 25. X-Ray Microdiffraction in X-Ray Scanning Microanalysis;274
31.1;REFERENCES;281
32;Chapter 26. X-Ray Microprobe Techniques;282
32.1;The Resolving Power;290
32.2;Transmission Analysis;291
32.3;Scanning Microanalysis;293
32.4;REFERENCES;296
33;Chapter 27. The Application of the Electron-Probe Microanalyzer to Metallurgy and Mineralogy;298
33.1;Specimen Preparation;299
33.2;Identification of Inclusions and New Mineral Phases;299
33.3;Segregation in Metals;301
33.4;Diffusion Couples and Phase Equilibria;303
33.5;Petrological Studies;306
33.6;Visible Fluorescence in Minerals;307
33.7;Meteorites;309
33.8;Kossel Line Techniques;311
33.9;Conclusion;312
33.10;REFERENCES;313
34;Chapter 28. Review of Microanalysis in Japan;316
34.1;Introduction;316
34.2;Instrumentation;317
34.3;Applied Research;327
34.4;MEMBERS OF THE GROUP;333
34.5;REFERENCES;334
35;Chapter 29. Electron-Probe Measurements near Phase Boundaries;336
35.1;Excitation by Characteristic Radiation;337
35.2;Excitation by Continuous Radiation;339
35.3;Absorption of Fluorescence Radiation;339
35.4;Artificial Boundaries;341
35.5;Exsolution Lamellae;342
35.6;Fluorescence Uncertainty;345
35.7;Electron Diffusion;345
35.8;REFERENCES;346
36;Chapter 30. Calculation of Fluorescence Excited by Characteristic Radiation in the X-Ray Microanalyzer;348
36.1;Introduction;348
36.2;Basic Problem;349
36.3;The Distribution Function f (.z);350
36.4;Ratio of Absolute Intensities of Primary Radiation From Two Different Elements;352
36.5;Comparison of Final Equations;352
36.6;Properties of Castaing's Expression with Variations of Incident Angle of Electron Probe, Emergent Angle of X-Ray Beam, Accelerating Voltage, and Atomic Number;355
36.7;Conclusion;358
36.8;REFERENCES;359
37;Chapter 31. A Suggested Secondary Fluorescence Correction Technique for Electron-Probe Analyses in the Vicinity of a Steep Concentration Gradient;360
37.1;Introduction;360
37.2;Experimental Apparatus and Technique;361
37.3;Initial Experiments;362
37.4;Electron Excitation Away from the Focused Beam;363
37.5;Spectrometer Characteristics;366
37.6;Fluorescence Experiments;370
37.7;Correction Technique and Results;374
37.8;Conclusions;378
37.9;ACKNOWLEDGMENTS;378
37.10;REFERENCES;379
38;Chapter 32. The Target Absorption Correction in X-Ray Microanalysis;380
38.1;Introduction;380
38.2;The Experimental Method;389
38.3;Target Absorption for Direct Production;390
38.4;The Target Absorption Correction in X-Ray Microanalysis;394
38.5;REFERENCES;395
39;Chapter 33. A Method for Calculating the Absorption Correction in Electron-Probe Microanalysis;398
39.1;Introduction;398
39.2;Relationship of Emitted Intensity to Concentration;399
39.3;Derivation of the Function f (pz);400
39.4;Derivation of the Function F(.);403
39.5;Discussion;408
39.6;Conclusion;411
39.7;ACKNOWLEDGMENTS;411
39.8;REFERENCES;411
40;Chapter 34. The Effect of Atomic Number in X-Ray Microanalysis;412
40.1;Introduction;412
40.2;The Essentials of the Problem;413
40.3;Calculation of Electron Penetration;414
40.4;Backscattering of Electrons;417
40.5;Computed Results;423
40.6;Comparison of Theory and Experiment;425
40.7;Plutonium-Iron;426
40.8;Calculation of X-Ray Absorption;427
40.9;Conclusion;428
40.10;REFERENCES;429
41;Chapter 35. Atomic Number Effects in Microprobe Analysis;430
41.1;Experimental Results;431
41.2;Analysis by Au La Radiation;432
41.3;Analysis by Au Ma Radiation;435
41.4;Analysis by Cu Ka Radiation;435
41.5;Conclusion;435
41.6;REFERENCES;436
42;Chapter 36. Scattering of Electrons from a Microanalyzer Target;438
42.1;Introduction;438
42.2;Theoretical Treatmetnt;439
42.3;Experimental Procedure;441
42.4;Results and Discussion;444
42.5;ACKNOWLEDGMENTS;448
42.6;REFERENCES;448
43;Chapter 37. X-Ray Microanalysis of Elements in the Range Z=4–92, Combined with Electron Microscopy and Electron Diffraction;450
43.1;Introduction;450
43.2;Design of a Combined Instrument;451
43.3;The Analysis of Elements Down to Atomic Number 4;455
43.4;ACKNOWLEDGMENTS;458
43.5;REFERENCES;458
44;Chapter 38. An Experimental Electron Optical Bench for Electron Microscopy and X-Ray Microanalysis;460
44.1;REFERENCE;463
45;Chapter 39. X-Ray Fluorescence Analysis with a Focused Primary Beam;464
45.1;Introduction;464
45.2;Utilisation d'une raie intense;465
45.3;Méthode d'excitation différentielle;466
45.4;Conclusion;468
45.5;BIBLIOGRAPHIE;468
46;Chapter 40. The Use of Specimen Current in Electron-Probe Microanalysis;470
46.1;Introduction;470
46.2;Mesure des coefficients de rétrodiffusion;472
46.3;Images électroniques;486
46.4;Conclusion;495
46.5;BIBLIOGRAPHIE;495
47;Chapter 41. On a New Electron-Probe X-Ray Microanalyzer having a 90° Take-Off Angle;496
47.1;ACKNOWLEDGMENT;500
47.2;REFERENCES;500
48;Chapter 42. An X-Ray Microanalyzer for Elements of Low Atomic Number;502
48.1;Introduction;502
48.2;The Network Pulse-Analysis Method;502
48.3;Apparatus;505
48.4;Results;507
48.5;Conclusion;512
48.6;ACKNOWLEDGMENTS;512
48.7;REFERENCES;512
49;Chapter 43. A Consideration of Some Design Features of a Scanning Microanalyzer for Biological Applications;514
49.1;REFERENCES;516
50;Chapter 44. Problems Associated with the Preparation of Biological Specimens for Microanalysis;518
50.1;Soft Tissues;518
50.2;Hard Tissues;519
50.3;Conducting Surface Layer;524
50.4;REFERENCES;525
51;Chapter 45. Some Biological Applications of the Scanning Microanalyzer;526
51.1;Introduction;526
51.2;Examples of Applications;526
51.3;Conclusion;530
51.4;REFERENCES;530
52;Chapter 46. X-Ray Fluorescence Microanalysis and the Determination of Potassium in Nerve Cells;532
52.1;Sensitivity and Comparison of Crystal Spectrometer and Proportional Counter Systems;533
52.2;Experimental;535
52.3;Discussion;538
52.4;Summary;539
52.5;REFERENCES;540
53;Chapter 47. X-Ray Fluorescence Spectroscopy in Biology and Medicine;542
53.1;Introduction;542
53.2;Results and Discussion;544
53.3;REFERENCES;555
54;Chapter 48. Electron-Probe Microanalysis of Biological Specimens;558
54.1;Introduction;558
54.2;Materials and Methods;559
54.3;Observations and Discussion;564
54.4;ACKNOWLEDGMENTS;575
54.5;REFERENCES;575
55;Chapter 49. Analysis of Heavy Elements (Z>80) with the Castaing Microprobe: Application to the Analysis of Binary Systems Containing Uranium;578
55.1;Introduction;578
55.2;Calculs de Correction;579
55.3;Résultats Expérimentaux;589
55.4;Conclusions;594
55.5;BIBLIOGRAPHIE;594
56;Chapter 50. A Study of Microsegregation at Grain Boundaries in Mild Steel by Means of the Electron–Probe Microanalyzer;596
56.1;Introduction;596
56.2;Statement of the Problem;596
56.3;Qualitative Experiments;599
56.4;Quantitative Analysis;600
56.5;Diffusion-Rate Experiments;603
56.6;High-Temperature Experiments;603
56.7;Summary and Conclusions;607
56.8;ACKNOWLEDGMENTS;608
56.9;REFERENCES;608
57;Chapter 51. The Use of the Electron-Microprobe Analyzer in the Study of Binary Metal Alloy Systems;610
57.1;Introduction;610
57.2;Experimental Techniques;611
57.3;Results;613
57.4;REFERENCES;621
58;Chapter 52. Sensitivity of X-Ray Spectrochemical Analysis of Steels by Electron Excitation;622
58.1;Introduction;622
58.2;Experimental;623
58.3;Results;625
58.4;Discussion;628
58.5;REFERENCES;629
59;Chapter 53. Electron-Probe Analysis of Minerals in the System FeS2-CoS2-NiS2;630
59.1;Introduction;630
59.2;Experimental Procedure;630
59.3;Results;631
59.4;ACKNOWLEDGMENTS;635
59.5;REFERENCES;635
60;Subject Index;638