Pimentel Biofuels, Solar and Wind as Renewable Energy Systems

Benefits and Risks
1. Auflage 2008
ISBN: 978-1-4020-8654-0
Verlag: Springer Netherlands
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 513 Seiten

The petroleum age began about 150 years ago. Easily available energy has s- ported major advances in agriculture, industry, transportation, and indeed many diverse activities valued by humans. Now world petroleum and natural gas s- plies have peaked and their supplies will slowly decline over the next 40-50 years until depleted. Although small amounts of petroleum and natural gas will remain underground, it will be energetically and economically impossible to extract. In the United States, coal supplies could be available for as long as 40-50 years, depending on how rapidly coal is utilized as a replacement for petroleum and natural gas. Having been comfortable with the security provided by fossil energy, especially petroleum and natural gas, we appear to be slow to recognize the energy crisis in the U. S. and world. Serious energy conservation and research on viable renewable - ergy technologies are needed. Several renewable energy technologies already exist, but sound research is needed to improve their effectiveness and economics. Most of the renewable energy technologies are in uenced by geographic location and face problems of intermittent energy supply and storage. Most renewable technologies require extensive land; a few researchers have even suggested that one-half of all land biomass could be harvested in order to supply the U. S. with 30% of its liquid fuel! Some optimistic investigations of renewable energy have failed to recognize that only 0. 1% of the solar energy is captured annually in the U. S.

David Pimentel is a professor of ecology and agricultural sciences at Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853-0901. His Ph.D. is from Cornell University. His research spans the fields of energy, ecological and economic aspects of pest control, biological control, biotechnology, sustainable agriculture, land and water conservation, and environmental policy. Pimentel has published more than 600 scientific papers and 25 books and has served on many national and government committees including the National Academy of Sciences; President's Science Advisory Council; U.S Department of Agriculture; U.S. Department of Energy; U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare; Office of Technology Assessment of the U.S. Congress; and the U.S. State Department.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Pimentel, David

Pimentel, D.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Preface;5
2;Acknowledgements;7
3;Contents;8
4;About our Authors;10
5;Contributors;17
6;Renewable and Solar Energy Technologies: Energy and Environmental Issues;20
6.1;1.1 Introduction;20
6.2;1.2 Hydroelectric Power;21
6.3;1.3 Biomass Energy;23
6.4;1.4 Wind Power;24
6.5;1.5 Solar Thermal Conversion Systems;25
6.6;1.6 Photovoltaic Systems;26
6.7;1.7 Geothermal Systems;27
6.8;1.8 Biogas;28
6.9;1.9 Ethanol and Energy Inputs;28
6.10;1.10 Grasslands and Celulosic Ethanol;30
6.11;1.11 Methanol and Vegetable Oils;30
6.12;1.12 Transition to Renewable Energy;31
6.13;1.13 Conclusion;32
6.14;References;33
7;Can the Earth Deliver the Biomass-for-Fuel we Demand?;37
7.1;2.1 Introduction;37
7.2;2.2 Background;40
7.3;2.3 Plan of Attack;45
7.4;2.4 Efficiency of Cellulosic Ethanol Refineries;46
7.5;2.5 Where will the Agrofuel Biomass Come from?;51
7.6;2.6 Conclusions;62
7.7;References;62
7.8;Appendix 1: Ecosystem Definition and Properties;64
7.9;Appendix 2: Mass Balance of Carbon in an Ecosystem;66
7.10;Appendix 3: Environmental Controls on Net;70
7.11;Primary Productivity;70
7.12;Glossary;72
8;A Review of the Economic Rewards and Risks of Ethanol Production;74
8.1;3.1 Introduction;74
8.2;3.2 Measuring and Mismeasuring Biofuels Economic Impacts;76
8.3;3.3 Ethanol Production Economic Opportunities and Offsets;81
8.4;3.4 Bioenergy Promotion and the Overall Sustainability;89
8.5;of Rural Economies;89
8.6;References;94
9;Subsidies to Ethanol in the United States;96
9.1;Acronyms & abbreviations;97
9.2;4.1 Introduction;97
9.3;4.2 Evolution of Federal Policies Supporting Liquid Biofuels;99
9.4;4.3 Current Policies Supporting Ethanol;101
9.5;4.4 Aggregate Support to Ethanol;113
9.6;4.5 Pending Legislation;119
9.7;4.6 Conclusions;120
9.8;References;122
10;Peak Oil, EROI, Investments and the Economy in an Uncertain Future;126
10.1;5.1 Introduction;127
10.2;5.2 The Age of Petroleum;127
10.3;5.3 How much Oil will we be able to Extract?;129
10.4;5.4 Decreasing Energy Return on Investment;134
10.5;5.5 The Balloon Graph;136
10.6;5.6 Economic Impacts of Peak Oil and Decreasing EROI;138
10.7;5.7 The “Cheese Slicer” Model;139
10.8;5.8 Results of Simulation;144
10.9;5.9 Discussion;144
10.10;5.10 Conclusion;147
10.11;References;147
11;Wind Power: Benefits and Limitations;150
11.1;6.1 Introduction;150
11.2;6.2 The Power Density of Electricity from Wind Turbines;152
11.3;6.3 Producing the Output of a Power Station from Wind Power;153
11.4;6.4 The Problem of Assessing Energy with Respect to Wind Turbines;154
11.5;6.5 The Implications of the Uncontrollable Nature of the Output from Wind Turbines ;155
11.6;6.6 The Problems of Operating in Harness with Wind Turbines;156
11.7;6.7 Alternatives toWind Power;157
11.8;6.8 The Problems of Storage;158
11.9;6.9 The Problem of ‘Liquid’ Fuel in a Fossil-Fuel-Free Society;163
11.10;6.10 Learning from Experience (Denmark);164
11.11;6.11 Making Realistic Assessments of the Cost ofWind Power;165
11.12;6.12 Conclusion;165
11.13;Notes;166
11.14;References;168
12;Renewable Diesel;169
12.1;7.1 Introduction;169
12.2;7.2 The Diesel Engine;170
12.3;7.3 Ecological Limits;170
12.4;7.4 Straight Vegetable Oil;172
12.5;7.5 Biodiesel;172
12.6;7.6 Green Diesel;175
12.7;7.7 Feed Stocks;177
12.8;7.8 Conclusions;183
12.9;7.9 Conversion Factors and Calculations;183
12.10;References;185
13;Complex Systems Thinking and Renewable Energy Systems;188
13.1;8.1 Theoretical Issues: The Problems Faced by Energy Analysis;189
13.2;8.2 Basic Concepts of Bioeconomics;198
13.3;8.3 Using the MuSIASEM Approach to Check the Viability of Alternative Energy Sources: An Application to Biofuels;209
13.4;8.4 Conclusion;220
13.5;References;224
14;Sugarcane and Ethanol Production and Carbon Dioxide Balances;229
14.1;9.1 Introduction;229
14.2;9.2 The “Green” Promise;230
14.3;9.3 CO2 Emissions of Sugarcane Ethanol;230
14.4;9.4 Gasoline Versus Ethanol;233
14.5;9.5 Bagasse as a Source of Energy;233
14.6;9.6 Pre-Harvest Burning of Sugarcane and Mechanical Harvest;235
14.7;9.7 Distillery Wastes;236
14.8;9.8 Possible Additional Sources of Methane;237
14.9;9.9 CO2 Mitigation;237
14.10;9.10 Variations of CO2 Emissions Calculations;238
14.11;9.11 A Trend in the Near Future;239
14.12;9.12 Environmental Impacts Versus CO2 Emissions;240
14.13;9.13 Conclusions;241
14.14;References;242
15;Biomass Fuel Cycle Boundaries and Parameters: Current Practice and Proposed Methodology;245
15.1;Acronyms & abbreviations;245
15.2;10.1 Introduction;246
15.3;10.2 BFC Analysis Methodology: A Modular Model Approach;246
15.4;10.3 BFC Fuel and Net Energy Balance Definitions;254
15.5;10.4 BFC Models;256
15.6;10.5 Other Considerations;269
15.7;References;270
16;Our Food and Fuel Future;272
16.1;11.1 Introduction;273
16.2;11.2 Price and Availability of Traditional Fuels;273
16.3;11.3 Alternative Sources of Energy;280
16.4;11.4 GreenhouseWarming and its Connections;294
16.5;11.5 Political and Social Conditions, Especially;298
16.6;in the United States;298
16.7;11.6 Conclusions;302
16.8;References;305
17;A Framework for Energy Alternatives: Net Energy, Liebig’s Law and Multi-criteria Analysis;308
17.1;12.1 Introduction;308
17.2;12.2 Net Energy Analysis;309
17.3;12.3 An Introduction to EROI – Energy Return on Investment;309
17.4;12.4 Humans and Energy Gain;310
17.5;12.5 Current Energy Gain;311
17.6;12.6 An Energy Theory of Value;312
17.7;12.7 Why is Net Energy Important?;312
17.8;12.8 Net Energy and Energy Quality;313
17.9;12.9 Energy Return on Investment – Towards a Consistent Framework;315
17.10;12.10 A Framework for Analyzing EROI;318
17.11;12.11 Non-Energy Inputs;319
17.12;12.12 Non-Energy Outputs;321
17.13;12.13 Non-Market Impacts;321
17.14;12.14 A Summary of Methodologies;322
17.15;12.15 A Unifying EROI Framework;323
17.16;12.16 Liebig’s Law, Multi-Criteria Analysis, and Energy from Biofuels;325
17.17;12.17 Conclusion;328
17.18;References;329
18;Bio-Ethanol Production in Brazil;333
18.1;13.1 Historical Introduction;334
18.2;13.2 The Sugarcane Crop in Brazil;337
18.3;13.3 Environmental Impact;342
18.4;13.4 Labour Conditions;362
18.5;13.5 Conclusions;363
18.6;References;365
19;Ethanol Production: Energy and Economic Issues Related to U.S. and Brazilian Sugarcane;369
19.1;14.1 Introduction;369
19.2;14.2 Energy Inputs in Sugarcane Production;370
19.3;14.3 Energy Inputs in Fermentation/Distillation;372
19.4;14.4 Energy Yield;374
19.5;14.5 Economic Costs;374
19.6;14.6 Land Use in the U.S.;375
19.7;14.7 Ethanol Production and Use in Brazil;376
19.8;14.8 Environmental Impacts;376
19.9;14.9 Air Pollution;377
19.10;14.10 Food Security;378
19.11;14.11 Food versus the Fuel Issue;378
19.12;14.12 Summary;379
19.13;References;380
20;Ethanol Production Using Corn, Switchgrass and Wood; Biodiesel Production Using Soybean;384
20.1;15.1 Introduction;384
20.2;15.2 Energy Inputs in Corn Production;385
20.3;15.3 Cellulosic Ethanol;391
20.4;15.4 Switchgrass Production of Ethanol;393
20.5;15.5 Wood Cellulose Conversion into Ethanol;394
20.6;15.6 Biodiesel Production;397
20.7;15.7 Soybean Conversion into Biodiesel;397
20.8;15.8 Canola Conversion into Biodiesel;399
20.9;15.9 Conclusion;400
20.10;References;402
21;Developing Energy Crops for Thermal Applications: Optimizing Fuel Quality, Energy Security and GHG Mitigation;406
21.1;Acronyms & abbreviations;407
21.2;16.1 Introduction;407
21.3;16.2 Energy Crop Production for Energy Security and GHG Mitigation;408
21.4;16.3 Optimization of Energy Grasses for Combustion Applications;422
21.5;16.4 Outlook;429
21.6;References;430
22;Organic and Sustainable Agriculture and Energy Conservation;435
22.1;17.1 Organic Agriculture: An Overview;436
22.2;17.2 Organic Agriculture: An Energy-Saving Alternative?;448
22.3;17.3 CO2 Emissions and Organic Management;453
22.4;17.4 Agricultural “Waste ” for Cellulosic Ethanol Production or Back to the Field?;458
22.5;17.5 Organically Produced Biofuels?;461
22.6;17.6 Conclusion;464
22.7;References;466
23;Biofuel Production in Italy and Europe: Benefits and Costs, in the Light of the Present European;475
23.1;18.1 Introduction;476
23.2;18.2 To What extent Would a Large Scale Biofuel Production Really Replace Fossil Fuels?;477
23.3;18.3 Physical Constraints Other than Energy;487
23.4;18.4 The Large-Scale Picture. An Overview of Substitution Scenarios;490
23.5;18.5 Discussion;493
23.6;18.6 Conclusions;497
23.7;References;499
24;The Power Density of Ethanol from Brazilian Sugarcane;502
24.1;19.1 Introduction;502
24.2;19.2 Errors and the Potential for More Relating to Sugarcane;505
24.3;19.3 Soil Erosion Problems;506
24.4;References;507
25;A Brief Discussion on Algae for Oil Production: Energy Issues;508
25.1;References;509
26;Index;510

Leseproben

Chapter 3

A Review of the Economic Rewards and Risks of Ethanol Production (p. 57-58)

David Swenson

Abstract Ethanol production doubled in a very short period of time in the U.S. due to a combination of natural disasters, political tensions, and much more demand globally from petroleum. Responses to this expansion will span many sectors of society and the economy. As the Midwest gears up to rapidly add new ethanol manufacturing plants, the existing regional economy must accommodate the changes. There are issues for decision makers regarding existing agricultural activities, transportation and storage, regional economic impacts, the likelihood of growth in particular areas and decline in others, and the longer term economic, social, and environmental sustainability. Many of these issues will have to be considered and dealt with in a simultaneous fashion in a relatively short period of time.

This chapter investigates sets of structural, industrial, and regional consequences associated with ethanol plant development in the Midwest, primarily, and in the nation, secondarily. The first section untangles the rhetoric of local and regional economic impact claims about biofuels. The second section describes the economic gains and offsets that may accrue to farmers, livestock feeding, and other agri-businesses as production of ethanol and byproducts increase. The last section discusses the near and longer term growth prospects for rural areas in the Midwest and the nation as they relate to biofuels production.

Keywords Ethanol · economic impact · biofuels · farmer ownership · scale economies · storage · grain supply · rural development · cellulosic ethanol

3.1 Introduction

The economic, social, political, and environmental impacts of modern ethanol production in the U.S. are highly regionalized. Current ethanol production and most new ethanol plant development in the United States are concentrated in the Corn Belt states of Iowa, Illinois, Indiana, Minnesota, and Nebraska. Those states alone produced nearly 62 percent of the nation’s corn in 2006. Not surprisingly, those same states account for about two-thirds of actual or planned ethanol production capacity.

Ethanol production and plant development took on an added urgency in the fall of 2005 after hurricanes Katrina and Rita crippled domestic oil production capacity in the Gulf of Mexico. Those events, coupled with heightened uncertainty about both near-term and long-term oil supplies in light of other international issues, fueled massive amounts of rhetorical, political, and financial resources in support of biofuels production and energy independence.

The growth in U.S. ethanol production has been dramatic: In 2005, 1.6 billion bushels of corn were converted to ethanol, about 12.1 percent of the total corn supply. By the end of 2007 it is estimated that 3.2 billion bushels will be used for that purpose, about a quarter of the nation’s corn supply, and an increase of just over 100 percent in only two years (USDA 2007). That much corn will make enough ethanol to account for 3.9 percent of the nation’s total demand for motor gasoline that year (EIA 2007).