Prasad / Wanhill Aerospace Materials and Material Technologies

Volume 1: Aerospace Materials
1. Auflage 2017
ISBN: 978-981-10-2134-3
Verlag: Springer Nature Singapore
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 594 Seiten

Reihe: Indian Institute of Metals Series

This book is a comprehensive compilation of chapters on materials (both established and evolving) and material technologies that are important for aerospace systems. It considers aerospace materials in three Parts. Part I covers  Metallic Materials (Mg, Al, Al-Li, Ti, aero steels, Ni, intermetallics, bronzes and Nb alloys); Part II deals with Composites (GLARE, PMCs, CMCs and Carbon based CMCs); and Part III considers Special Materials. This compilation has ensured that no important aerospace material system is ignored. Emphasis is laid in each chapter on the underlying scientific principles as well as basic and fundamental mechanisms leading to processing, characterization, property evaluation and applications. This book will be useful to students, researchers and professionals working in the domain of aerospace materials.

Dr. N. Eswara Prasad, FIE,FAPAS,FIIM, a B.Tech. (1985) and a Ph.D. (1993) in Metallurgical Engineering from Indian Institute of Technology (BHU), Varanasi, India, is an innovative and creative researcher and technologist. He is currently serving as Director, Defense Materials and Stores Research and Development Establishment (DMSRDE), DRDO at Kanpur, India.He has made significant and outstanding contributions to the Indian Defense Research and Development Organization (DRDO)ce;'> in the last 30 years in the fields of design, materials development and characterization, and airworthiness certified production of many advanced aerospace, aeronautical and naval materials and components. The extensive research work conducted  by him has resulted in the development and certified production of  (i) Al & Al-Li alloys for LCA, LCH  and  Indian Space Programme, (ii) Aero Steels, including Maraging and PH Steels for Indian Missile Programmes, (iii)  High strength and high temperature Ti Alloys, including ?-Ti alloys for LCA's slat tracks and landing gear, (iv) Advanced  Ultrahigh Temperature materials - Mo & Ti Intermetallics, Monolithic Ceramics (Structural Alumina, Graphite and SiC), Carbon, Silica and SiC based Continuous Fibre-reinforced, Ceramic-matrix Composites (CFCCs) for cutting edge components, systems and technologies. Application of these materials in DRDO has been complemented by him by extensive fundamental research on tensile deformation, fatigue and fracture, correlations between chemical composition-processing-microstructure-texture-deformation, leading to first time scientific explanations on Property Anisotropy. In the last 6 years, Dr. Prasad has been instrumental in the concurrent development and production of several airworthiness certified materials and components of Aero and Naval steels, Al alloys, Ni-base Superalloys, Ti sponge and Special Ti alloys for Indian Defense, Indian Air Force, Indian Navy and ATVP - the Indian Submarine Program, which have resulted in realizing defense hardware worth more than Rs. 12 billion, out of which direct materials production of nearly Rs. 6.2 Billions through 180 provisional clearances and 11 type approvals of CEMILAC. Dr. Prasad's prolific research resulted over 170 research articles in peer-reviewed national and international journals and conference proceedings, including 30 written/edited books and book chapters as well as 26 classified and unclassified, as also peer reviewed technical reports and a highly acclaimed first International Monograph on Al-Li Alloys in 2014. He has also authored nearly 90 confidential reports and more than 260 certification documents for DRDO. In recognition of his original contributions in the fields of Metallurgy and Materials Engineering, Dr. Prasad had received several national and international awards. He has been the recipient of YOUNG SCIENTIST AWARD (ICSA, 1991), YOUNG METALLURGIST (Ministry of Steel,1994), AvH's Humboldt Research Fellowship (1998-99), Max-Planck-Institute (Stuttgart)'s Visiting Scientist (1998-99), Binani Gold Medal (IIM, 2006), METALLURGIST OF THE YEAR (Ministry of Steel, 2010), AICTE-INAE Distinguished Visiting Professorship at Andhra University and Mahatma Gandhi Institute of Technology (INAE, 2012-Till Date), IIT-BHU(MET)'s Distinguished Alumnus Award (2013) and the prestigious Dr. VM Ghatge Award of AeSI (in 2014).Dr. Prasad is a Fellow of Institute of Engineers (India) [FIE], Indian Institute of Metals [FIIM] and AP Akademi of Sciences [FAPAS]. Dr. R. J. H. Wanhill is emeritus Principal Research Scientist at the Netherlands Aerospace Centre, formerly the National Aerospace Laboratory NLR, in the Netherlands. He holds two Doctorates, one from the University of Manchester (1968) and the second from the Delft University of Technology (1994). He joined the NLR in 1970, and since then has investigated fatigue and fracture of all classes of aerospace alloys. He is co-author of the book 'Fracture Mechanics' (1984), which has run into a second edition; co-author with Simon Barter of the monograph 'Fatigue of Beta Processed and Beta Heat-treated Titanium Alloys', published by Springer in 2012; and co-author and co-editor for the book 'Aluminium - Lithium Alloys: Processing, Properties and Applications', editors N. Eswara Prasad, Amol A. Gokhale and R. J. H. Wanhill, published in 2014.From 1978 to 1996 Dr. Wanhill was head of the Materials Department of the NLR, and in 1979-80 adjunct professor of materials at Delft University of Technology. From 1997 to 2008 he was a Principal Research Scientist in the Aerospace Vehicles Division of the NLR. From 2008 to 2015 he has been emeritus Principal Research Scientist at the NLR. In 2002 the Board of the Foundation NLR awarded Dr. Wanhill the first Dr.ir.B.M. Spee Prize for outstanding contributions on aerospace materials. In October 2014 he was awarded an Honour Diploma by the Netherlands Aerospace Fund for his long-term contributions to scientific research and knowledge at the NLR, and use of this knowledge for aircraft failure analyses.  In recent years Dr. Wanhill has worked on the analysis of fatigue cracking in GLARE panels from the Airbus 380 MegaLiner Barrel test (presented at ICAF 2009) and, in collaboration with Dr. Simon Barter (Defence Science and Technology Group, DSTG, Melbourne). From November 2009 to May 2010 Dr. Wanhill was a Visiting Academic at the DSTG. The work there included (i) a collaborative report, book chapter, and presentation for the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) on fatigue life assessment of combat aircraft; (ii) a book chapter on stress corrosion cracking (SCC) in aerospace; (iii) two seminar presentations, on service failures and the MegaLiner Barrel GLARE cracking (see above); and (iv) preparation of a course on failure analysis, held twice at Auckland Technical University at the beginning of May 2010. This course has been adopted by the RAAF as part of its instruction material.Since 1994 Dr. Wanhill has been investigating fracture phenomena in ancient silver and iron, and has published eight peer-reviewed papers on this topic. The most recent papers have been published in the Journal of Failure Analysis and Prevention (2011), Metallography, Microstructure, and Analysis (2012) and the leading archaeological scientific journal Studies in Conservation (2013). Dr. Wanhill also gives annual lectures on ancient silver for a Master's Degree course on conservation at the University of Amsterdam. Dr. Wanhill has been an author and speaker on several fatigue and fracture topics and also on fatigue-based design of aircraft structures. In 2012, Dr. Wanhill was a keynote speaker for the International Conference on Engineering Failure Analysis V, held in The Hague. He also had two additional contributions, with co-authors: 'Validation of F-16 wing attachment fitting bolts' and 'Five helicopter accidents with evidence of material and/or design deficiencies'. All three presentations have been published as papers in Engineering Failure Analysis in 2013. In 2014 he was a keynote speaker at Fatigue 2014, held in Melbourne. In 2015 he gave a Public Lecture at Materials Days 2015, Rostock, with the title 'Materials and structural integrity: Milestone aircraft case histories and continuing developments'. This presentation has also been adopted by the RAAF as instruction material, and in written chapter form will be published in 'The Reference Module in Materials Science and Engineering'.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Prasad, N. Eswara

Wanhill, R. J. H.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Foreword by Prof. Dipankar Banerjee;7
2;Foreword by Prof. Indranil Manna;9
3;Series Editors’ Preface;11
3.1;About the Indian Institute of Metals;11
3.2;Genesis and History of the Series;11
3.3;Current Series Information;12
3.4;About This Book;12
4;Preface to Volume 1;14
5;Acknowledgements;16
6;Contents;18
7;About the Editors;21
8;Contributors;24
9;Metallic Materials;27
10;1 Magnesium Alloys;28
10.1;Abstract;28
10.2;1.1 Introduction;28
10.3;1.2 Classification and Designation;29
10.4;1.3 Physical Metallurgy of Mg Alloys;29
10.4.1;1.3.1 Role of Different Alloying Elements;30
10.4.1.1;1.3.1.1 Zinc (Zn);30
10.4.1.2;1.3.1.2 Zirconium (Zr);30
10.4.1.3;1.3.1.3 Aluminium (Al);30
10.4.1.4;1.3.1.4 Rare Earth (RE) Elements (Nd, Ce, La, Gd, Pr);31
10.4.1.5;1.3.1.5 Manganese (Mn);31
10.4.1.6;1.3.1.6 Silver (Ag);31
10.4.1.7;1.3.1.7 Silicon (Si);31
10.4.1.8;1.3.1.8 Thorium (Th);31
10.4.1.9;1.3.1.9 Transition Elements (Copper (Cu), Iron (Fe), Nickel (Ni), Cobalt (Co));32
10.4.1.10;1.3.1.10 Lithium (Li);32
10.4.1.11;1.3.1.11 Yttrium (Y);32
10.4.1.12;1.3.1.12 Beryllium (Be);32
10.4.1.13;1.3.1.13 Calcium (Ca);32
10.4.2;1.3.2 Precipitation Reactions in Mg Alloys;32
10.4.3;1.3.3 Strengthening in Mg Alloys;33
10.5;1.4 Aerospace Mg Alloys;33
10.5.1;1.4.1 Casting Alloys;36
10.5.2;1.4.2 Wrought Alloys;37
10.5.3;1.4.3 Welding and Machining;38
10.5.4;1.4.4 Recent Advancements in Mg Alloys;38
10.6;1.5 Mechanical Properties;40
10.6.1;1.5.1 Tensile Properties;40
10.6.2;1.5.2 Fatigue and Fracture Resistance;42
10.6.3;1.5.3 Creep and Oxidation Properties;43
10.6.4;1.5.4 Corrosion Behaviour;46
10.6.4.1;1.5.4.1 General Corrosion;46
10.6.4.2;1.5.4.2 Galvanic Corrosion;46
10.6.4.3;1.5.4.3 Stress Corrosion Cracking (SCC);46
10.6.4.4;1.5.4.4 Corrosion Fatigue;47
10.6.4.5;1.5.4.5 Advances in Corrosion Protection Techniques;48
10.7;1.6 Global Scenario and Indian Programmes;48
10.8;1.7 Summary;49
10.9;Acknowledgments;49
10.10;References;50
11;2 Aluminium Alloys for Aerospace Applications;53
11.1;Abstract;53
11.2;2.1 Introduction;54
11.3;2.2 Classification and Designation;56
11.3.1;2.2.1 Wrought Alloys;57
11.3.2;2.2.2 Cast Alloys;57
11.3.3;2.2.3 Temper Designations;57
11.4;2.3 Age-Hardenable Aluminium Alloys;59
11.5;2.4 Effects of Alloying Elements;61
11.6;2.5 Mechanical Properties;64
11.6.1;2.5.1 Strength and Fracture Toughness;64
11.6.2;2.5.2 Fatigue;66
11.6.3;2.5.3 Fatigue Crack Growth;68
11.6.4;2.5.4 Corrosion Resistance;68
11.7;2.6 Typical Aerospace Applications of Aluminium Alloys;69
11.8;2.7 Indian Scenario;70
11.8.1;2.7.1 Gaps in Indian Aerospace Aluminium Technologies;72
11.8.2;2.7.2 Type Certification of Aluminium Alloys in India;73
11.9;2.8 Summary and Conclusions;73
11.10;Acknowledgments;75
11.11;References;75
11.12;Some Useful Data Handbooks;76
12;3 Aluminium–Lithium Alloys;77
12.1;Abstract;77
12.2;3.1 History of Alloy Development;77
12.3;3.2 Aircraft Structural Property Requirements;78
12.4;3.3 Physical Metallurgy of Al–Li Alloys;82
12.5;3.4 Processing Technologies;84
12.6;3.5 Mechanical Properties;85
12.6.1;3.5.1 Tensile Properties;86
12.6.2;3.5.2 Fatigue Properties;86
12.6.3;3.5.3 Fracture Toughness and R-curves;91
12.7;3.6 Corrosion and Stress Corrosion Cracking;91
12.8;3.7 Current Indian Scenario;93
12.9;3.8 Conclusions;93
12.10;Acknowledgments;93
12.11;References;94
13;4 Titanium Sponge Production and Processing for Aerospace Applications;97
13.1;Abstract;97
13.2;4.1 Introduction;97
13.3;4.2 Established Methods of Titanium Extraction;98
13.4;4.3 World Production of Titanium Sponge—Recent Developments;100
13.5;4.4 Indian Scenario on Titanium Sponge Production;101
13.5.1;4.4.1 Development of Kroll Technology at DMRL, Hyderabad;101
13.5.2;4.4.2 Development of Combined Process Technology at DMRL, Hyderabad;102
13.5.3;4.4.3 Quality Evaluation and Processing of Aerospace Grade Sponge;105
13.5.4;4.4.4 Commercial Production of Titanium Sponge at KMML, Chavara, India;107
13.5.5;4.4.5 Quality Assurance Program at KMML Sponge Plant;107
13.5.6;4.4.6 Type Certification of Titanium Sponge—The Approach;108
13.6;4.5 Properties of Ti Sponge;110
13.7;4.6 Concluding Remarks;111
13.8;Acknowledgments;111
13.9;References;112
14;5 Titanium Alloys: Part 1—Physical Metallurgy and Processing;114
14.1;Abstract;114
14.2;5.1 Introduction;114
14.3;5.2 Physical Metallurgy of Titanium Alloys;115
14.3.1;5.2.1 Crystal Structure;115
14.3.2;5.2.2 Elastic Properties;117
14.3.3;5.2.3 Deformation Modes;117
14.3.4;5.2.4 Slip Modes;118
14.3.5;5.2.5 Alloying Additions;119
14.3.6;5.2.6 Phase Transformations;122
14.4;5.3 Primary Processing: Melting and Consolidation;124
14.4.1;5.3.1 Vacuum Arc Remelting (VAR);124
14.4.2;5.3.2 Cold Hearth Melting (CHM);126
14.4.3;5.3.3 Melt-Related Defects;127
14.4.4;5.3.4 Conditioning and Homogenization;130
14.5;5.4 Secondary Processing;130
14.5.1;5.4.1 Forging;130
14.5.2;5.4.2 Rolling;132
14.6;5.5 Titanium Alloy Castings;133
14.7;5.6 Indian Scenario on Titanium Alloy Processing;135
14.8;5.7 Summary;136
14.9;Acknowledgments;137
14.10;References;137
14.11;Bibliography;138
15;6 Titanium Alloys: Part 2—Alloy Development, Properties and Applications;139
15.1;Abstract;139
15.2;6.1 Introduction;139
15.3;6.2 Titanium Alloy Developments and Applications;140
15.3.1;6.2.1 Commercially Pure Titanium and ?-Titanium Alloys;140
15.3.2;6.2.2 High Temperature Near-? Titanium Alloys;142
15.3.3;6.2.3 ? + ? Titanium Alloys;145
15.3.3.1;6.2.3.1 Processing and Microstructures of ? + ? Titanium Alloys;145
15.3.3.2;6.2.3.2 Mechanical Properties of ? + ? Titanium Alloys;149
15.3.3.3;6.2.3.3 Applications of ? + ? Titanium Alloys;152
15.3.4;6.2.4 ? Titanium Alloys;155
15.3.4.1;6.2.4.1 Introduction: General Characteristics;155
15.3.4.2;6.2.4.2 Processing and Microstructures;156
15.3.4.3;6.2.4.3 Mechanical Properties of ? Titanium Alloys;161
15.3.4.4;6.2.4.4 Applications of ? Titanium Alloys;164
15.4;6.3 Summary;167
15.5;Acknowledgments;167
15.6;References;167
15.7;Bibliography;170
16;7 Aero Steels: Part 1—Low Alloy Steels;171
16.1;Abstract;171
16.2;7.1 Introduction;171
16.3;7.2 Classification and Designation;172
16.4;7.3 Compositions of Low Alloy Steels;174
16.4.1;7.3.1 Ultrahigh-Strength Steels (UHSS);174
16.4.2;7.3.2 Bearing Steels;176
16.5;7.4 Effects of Alloying Elements;176
16.5.1;7.4.1 Critical Transformation Temperatures;176
16.5.2;7.4.2 Formation and Stability of Carbides;176
16.5.3;7.4.3 Grain Size;178
16.5.4;7.4.4 Eutectoid Point;178
16.5.5;7.4.5 Hardenability;179
16.5.6;7.4.6 Volume Change;180
16.5.7;7.4.7 Resistance to Softening While Tempering;180
16.6;7.5 Strengthening Mechanisms;181
16.7;7.6 Melting of Low Alloy Steels;182
16.8;7.7 Fabrication of Low Alloy Steels;183
16.9;7.8 Heat Treatment;183
16.10;7.9 Surface Hardening of Steels;185
16.11;7.10 Engineering Properties;186
16.12;7.11 Indian Scenario;188
16.13;7.12 Summary and Conclusions;192
16.14;Acknowledgments;192
16.15;References;192
17;8 Aero Steels: Part 2—High Alloy Steels;194
17.1;Abstract;194
17.2;8.1 Introduction;194
17.3;8.2 Secondary Hardening Steels;195
17.3.1;8.2.1 Effects of Alloying Elements in Secondary Hardening Steels;195
17.3.2;8.2.2 Processing and Thermal Treatments;197
17.3.3;8.2.3 HP 9-4-X Steels;198
17.3.4;8.2.4 AF1410 Steel;200
17.3.5;8.2.5 AerMet Steels;201
17.3.6;8.2.6 Ferrium Steels;204
17.4;8.3 Maraging Steels;205
17.4.1;8.3.1 Effects of Alloying Elements in Maraging Steels;206
17.4.2;8.3.2 Processing and Heat Treatments of Maraging Steels;208
17.5;8.4 Precipitation Hardening (PH) Steels;209
17.5.1;8.4.1 Mechanical Properties of Typical PH Stainless Steels;210
17.5.2;8.4.2 Processing and Heat Treatments of PH Stainless Steels;211
17.5.3;8.4.3 Weldability of PH Stainless Steels;212
17.6;8.5 Illustration of Martensitic PH Steels Diversity: Custom 455, 465 and 475;213
17.6.1;8.5.1 Processing and Heat Treatments of Custom 455, 465 and 475 Stainless Steels;213
17.6.2;8.5.2 Weldability of Custom 455, 465 and 475 Stainless Steels;216
17.7;8.6 Indian Scenario;216
17.8;8.7 Summary;218
17.9;References;218
17.10;Bibliography;219
18;9 Nickel-Based Superalloys;220
18.1;Abstract;220
18.2;9.1 Introduction;221
18.3;9.2 Classification of Nickel-Based Superalloys;221
18.4;9.3 Physical Metallurgy;223
18.4.1;9.3.1 Chemical Composition;223
18.4.2;9.3.2 Microstructural Constituents;225
18.4.3;9.3.3 Heat Treatment;226
18.4.4;9.3.4 Strengthening Mechanisms;228
18.5;9.4 Manufacturing Processes;230
18.5.1;9.4.1 Wrought Alloys;231
18.5.2;9.4.2 Cast Superalloys;233
18.6;9.5 Properties of Superalloys;235
18.6.1;9.5.1 Tensile Properties;236
18.6.2;9.5.2 Creep Resistance;237
18.6.3;9.5.3 Fatigue;238
18.6.4;9.5.4 Fatigue Crack Growth;240
18.7;9.6 Evolution of Advanced Nickel-Based Superalloys;241
18.7.1;9.6.1 First Generation Superalloys;242
18.7.2;9.6.2 Second Generation Superalloys;243
18.7.3;9.6.3 Third Generation Superalloys;243
18.7.4;9.6.4 Fourth Generation Superalloys;244
18.7.5;9.6.5 Fifth Generation Superalloys;244
18.7.6;9.6.6 Sixth Generation Superalloys;245
18.8;9.7 Concluding Remarks;246
18.9;Acknowledgments;246
18.10;References;246
19;10 Structural Intermetallics;250
19.1;Abstract;250
19.2;10.1 Introduction;250
19.3;10.2 Crystal Structures and Compositions of Selected Intermetallics;251
19.3.1;10.2.1 Nickel Aluminides;252
19.3.2;10.2.2 Titanium Aluminides;253
19.3.3;10.2.3 Iron Aluminides;254
19.3.4;10.2.4 Molybdenum Silicides;254
19.3.5;10.2.5 Niobium Silicides;255
19.4;10.3 Processing;257
19.5;10.4 Properties of Ni-, Fe-, and Ti-Based Aluminides;259
19.5.1;10.4.1 Property Surveys;259
19.6;10.5 Aerospace Applications;261
19.6.1;10.5.1 Silicides;261
19.6.2;10.5.2 Aluminides;262
19.6.3;10.5.3 Indian Scenario;264
19.7;10.6 Summary;264
19.8;References;264
20;11 Bronzes for Aerospace Applications;267
20.1;Abstract;267
20.2;11.1 Introduction;268
20.3;11.2 Bronzes;268
20.3.1;11.2.1 Effects of Alloying Elements;268
20.3.2;11.2.2 Aluminium Bronzes;271
20.3.3;11.2.3 Aluminium-Silicon Bronzes;273
20.3.4;11.2.4 Silicon Bronzes;273
20.3.5;11.2.5 Phosphor Bronzes;274
20.3.6;11.2.6 Beryllium Bronzes;274
20.3.7;11.2.7 Manganese Bronzes;276
20.3.8;11.2.8 High Leaded Tin Bronzes;277
20.3.9;11.2.9 Sintered Bronzes (Oil Impregnated Bronzes);277
20.3.10;11.2.10 Aircraft Bronze (French Bronze);278
20.3.11;11.2.11 Nickel-Silicon Bronzes;278
20.4;11.3 Processing of Bronzes;279
20.4.1;11.3.1 Melting Practices;279
20.4.2;11.3.2 Casting Practices;280
20.4.3;11.3.3 Hot-Working;281
20.4.4;11.3.4 Cold-Working and Annealing;282
20.5;11.4 Indigenous Development of Aluminium and Silicon Bronzes for Aerospace;283
20.6;11.5 Summary and Conclusions;286
20.7;Acknowledgments;286
20.8;References;286
21;12 Niobium and Other High Temperature Refractory Metals for Aerospace Applications;287
21.1;Abstract;287
21.2;12.1 Introduction;287
21.3;12.2 Niobium Alloys;290
21.3.1;12.2.1 Nb Alloys and Their Properties;290
21.3.2;12.2.2 Production Methods for Niobium;294
21.3.3;12.2.3 Melting and Refining of Niobium and Preparation of Nb-Based Alloys;295
21.3.4;12.2.4 Processing of Niobium;296
21.3.5;12.2.5 Applications of Niobium and its Alloys;297
21.4;12.3 Niobium-Silicide Based Composites;299
21.5;12.4 Other Refractory Metals;300
21.5.1;12.4.1 Tantalum and its Alloys;300
21.5.2;12.4.2 Molybdenum and Its Alloys;301
21.5.3;12.4.3 Tungsten and Its Alloys;303
21.5.4;12.4.4 Rhenium and Its Alloys;305
21.6;12.5 Indian Scenario;306
21.7;12.6 Summary;306
21.8;References;307
22;Composites;309
23;13 GLARE®: A Versatile Fibre Metal Laminate (FML) Concept;310
23.1;Abstract;310
23.2;13.1 Introduction;310
23.3;13.2 GLARE: A Family of Materials;311
23.4;13.3 GLARE Applications;312
23.5;13.4 GLARE Properties;313
23.5.1;13.4.1 Damage Tolerance (DT): GLARE Basics;314
23.5.2;13.4.2 Fatigue Evaluation: The MLB Test;315
23.5.3;13.4.3 Residual Strength;317
23.5.4;13.4.4 DT Certification of GLARE;319
23.5.5;13.4.5 Impact Resistance;319
23.5.6;13.4.6 Flame Resistance;320
23.5.7;13.4.7 Corrosion Resistance;320
23.5.8;13.4.8 Inspections and Repairs;321
23.6;13.5 GLARE and Other Candidates for Primary Aircraft Structures;322
23.7;13.6 Summary;324
23.8;Acknowledgments;324
23.9;References;325
24;14 Carbon Fibre Polymer Matrix Structural Composites;327
24.1;Abstract;327
24.2;14.1 Introduction;327
24.3;14.2 Types of Composites;329
24.4;14.3 CFRP Composites;330
24.4.1;14.3.1 CFRP Composite Matrices;330
24.4.2;14.3.2 CFRP Composite Fibres;332
24.4.3;14.3.3 CFRP Aerospace Components Production;333
24.4.4;14.3.4 Reference Guidelines for CFRP Materials and Processing;336
24.5;14.4 CFRP Properties;337
24.5.1;14.4.1 Specific Mechanical Properties and Practical Weight Savings and Costs;337
24.5.2;14.4.2 Impact Damage and Inspections;341
24.5.3;14.4.3 Repairs of CFRP Structures;344
24.6;14.5 Safety and Damage Tolerance of CFRP Components and Structures;345
24.6.1;14.5.1 Strength and Safety Definitions;345
24.6.2;14.5.2 Reduction Factors on Allowables;346
24.6.3;14.5.3 Testing to Determine Allowables;346
24.6.4;14.5.4 Damage Tolerance (DT) Allowables;348
24.6.5;14.5.5 Repair Issues: Validation;349
24.7;14.6 Developments Old and New;350
24.7.1;14.6.1 3D CFRP Components and Structures;350
24.7.2;14.6.2 Self-healing CFRPs;352
24.8;14.7 Current Indian Scenario (Contribution Partly by K. Vijaya Raju);353
24.8.1;14.7.1 Light Combat Aircraft TEJAS;354
24.8.2;14.7.2 Light Transport Aircraft SARAS;354
24.9;14.8 Summary;356
24.10;References;356
24.11;Bibliography;359
25;15 C/C and C/SiC Composites for Aerospace Applications;360
25.1;Abstract;360
25.2;15.1 Introduction;360
25.3;15.2 Carbon Reinforcements;361
25.3.1;15.2.1 Carbon Fibre Reinforcements;361
25.3.2;15.2.2 Other Carbon Reinforcing Materials;363
25.4;15.3 Carbon Fibre Preforms;363
25.5;15.4 C/C Composites Processing;365
25.5.1;15.4.1 Chemical Vapour Impregnation (CVD/CVI);367
25.5.2;15.4.2 Liquid-Phase Impregnation Process;369
25.6;15.5 Properties of C/C Composites;369
25.6.1;15.5.1 Mechanical Properties of C/C Composites;370
25.6.2;15.5.2 Thermal Properties of C/C Composites;371
25.7;15.6 Example Applications of Aerospace C/C Composites;371
25.7.1;15.6.1 C/C Composite Brake Pads;371
25.7.2;15.6.2 C/C Nozzle and Throat;372
25.7.3;15.6.3 C/C Combustion Chamber;374
25.8;15.7 C/SiC Composites;374
25.8.1;15.7.1 C/SiC Fibre/Matrix Interface/Interphase;375
25.8.2;15.7.2 Oxidation;376
25.9;15.8 C/SiC Composite Processing;377
25.9.1;15.8.1 Chemical Vapour Impregnation (CVD/CVI);377
25.9.2;15.8.2 Polymer Infiltration and Pyrolysis (PIP);377
25.9.3;15.8.3 Liquid Silicon Infiltration (LSI);378
25.10;15.9 Properties of C/SiC Composites;379
25.11;15.10 Applications of Aerospace C/SiC Composites;380
25.11.1;15.10.1 Thermal Protection Systems (TPS) and Hot Structures for Space Vehicles;380
25.11.2;15.10.2 Jet-Vanes for Rocket Motors;381
25.11.3;15.10.3 C/SiC Nozzles and Components for Rocket and Jet Engines;381
25.11.4;15.10.4 C/SiC Composite Nozzle Throats;382
25.12;15.11 Indian Scenario for C/C and C/SiC Development;383
25.13;15.12 Summary;384
25.14;Acknowledgments;384
25.15;References;384
26;16 Ceramic Matrix Composites (CMCs) for Aerospace Applications;387
26.1;Abstract;387
26.2;16.1 Introduction;387
26.3;16.2 CMC Constituents;388
26.3.1;16.2.1 Ceramic Matrices;388
26.3.2;16.2.2 Ceramic Reinforcements;390
26.3.3;16.2.3 Interfaces;391
26.4;16.3 Toughening by Fibre Reinforcement/Crack Bridging;393
26.5;16.4 Processing of CMCs;395
26.6;16.5 CMCs Properties;397
26.7;16.6 Aerospace Applications;401
26.8;16.7 Summary;403
26.9;Acknowledgments;403
26.10;References;403
27;17 Nanocomposites Potential for Aero Applications;406
27.1;Abstract;406
27.2;17.1 Introduction;406
27.3;17.2 Metal Matrix Nanocomposites (MMNCs);407
27.3.1;17.2.1 Strengthening Mechanisms;407
27.3.2;17.2.2 Synthesis and Processing;409
27.3.3;17.2.3 Current Developments in Lightweight MMNCs;411
27.4;17.3 Polymer Matrix Nanocomposites (PMNCs);411
27.4.1;17.3.1 Reinforced Strengthening;414
27.4.2;17.3.2 Fabrication of PMNCs;417
27.4.3;17.3.3 Current Challenges in PMNCs;418
27.5;17.4 Ceramic Matrix Nanocomposites (CMNCs);419
27.5.1;17.4.1 Types of Reinforcement/Strengthening Mechanisms;419
27.5.2;17.4.2 Fabrication of CMNCs;421
27.6;17.5 Characterization of Nanocomposites;422
27.7;17.6 Future Aerospace Applications;422
27.8;17.7 Conclusions;423
27.9;Acknowledgments;423
27.10;References;423
28;Special Materials;427
29;18 Monolithic Ceramics for Aerospace Applications;428
29.1;Abstract;428
29.2;18.1 Introduction;428
29.3;18.2 Mechanical Properties;429
29.3.1;18.2.1 Strength Properties;429
29.3.2;18.2.2 Fracture Toughness;429
29.3.3;18.2.3 Thermal Shock Resistance;430
29.3.4;18.2.4 Creep and Creep Crack Growth;430
29.3.5;18.2.5 Mechanical Property Improvements via Toughening Micro Mechanisms;431
29.4;18.3 Ultrahigh-Temperature Ceramics for Aerospace Applications;432
29.4.1;18.3.1 Alumina Ceramics;434
29.4.2;18.3.2 Zirconia Ceramics;434
29.4.3;18.3.3 Silicon Nitride Ceramics;435
29.4.4;18.3.4 Silicon Carbide Ceramics;437
29.4.5;18.3.5 Molybdenum Disilicide (MoSi2) Ceramics;438
29.4.6;18.3.6 Carbon Ceramics;439
29.5;18.4 Emerging Monolithic Ceramics for Aerospace Applications;440
29.5.1;18.4.1 Titanium Boride Ceramics;440
29.5.2;18.4.2 Zirconium Boride Ceramics;442
29.6;18.5 Indian Scenario;444
29.7;18.6 Summary;444
29.8;Acknowledgments;444
29.9;References;445
30;19 Nano-enabled Multifunctional Materials for Aerospace Applications;451
30.1;Abstract;451
30.2;19.1 New Challenges for High Performance Aerospace Materials;451
30.3;19.2 Definitions;452
30.4;19.3 Examples of Functional Materials;452
30.5;19.4 Studies of Functional Materials and Potential Aerospace Applications;455
30.6;19.5 Nanomaterials and Structures for Aerospace: An Overview;455
30.7;19.6 Specific Assessments of Some Nanostructural Materials;456
30.7.1;19.6.1 Carbon Compounds;456
30.7.2;19.6.2 Ablative Applications;458
30.7.3;19.6.3 Sensor Films (Spacecraft);460
30.7.4;19.6.4 Superhydrophobic coatings;460
30.8;19.7 Update of Nanofunctional Materials Research;461
30.9;19.8 Summary;462
30.10;Acknowledgments;462
30.11;References;462
31;20 MAX Phases: New Class of Carbides and Nitrides for Aerospace Structural Applications;466
31.1;Abstract;466
31.2;20.1 Introduction;466
31.3;20.2 Physical Metallurgy of MAX Phases;467
31.3.1;20.2.1 Polymorphism of MAX Phases;467
31.4;20.3 Synthesis Procedures;469
31.4.1;20.3.1 Synthesis of Thin MAX Phases;469
31.4.2;20.3.2 Synthesis of Bulk MAX Phases;470
31.4.3;20.3.3 Synthesis of MAX Phases in Commercially Viable Bulk Forms;470
31.5;20.4 Properties of MAX Phases;473
31.5.1;20.4.1 Physical Properties;473
31.5.2;20.4.2 Chemical Properties;473
31.5.3;20.4.3 Mechanical Properties;474
31.6;20.5 Applications;474
31.7;20.6 Summary and Conclusions;475
31.8;Acknowledgments;475
31.9;References;475
32;21 Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs) for Aerospace Applications;477
32.1;Abstract;477
32.2;21.1 Introduction;477
32.3;21.2 SME Mechanisms;478
32.3.1;21.2.1 SMA Behaviour;480
32.4;21.3 SME Alloys;481
32.4.1;21.3.1 Properties of Commercial SMAs;482
32.4.2;21.3.2 Ni–Ti Alloy Variants;483
32.5;21.4 Aerospace Applications of SMAs;484
32.5.1;21.4.1 Overview;484
32.5.2;21.4.2 Actual and Potential Applications in Aircraft;485
32.5.3;21.4.3 Applications in Spacecraft;487
32.6;21.5 Concluding Remarks;489
32.7;References;489
32.8;Bibliography;491
33;22 Detonation Sprayed Coatings for Aerospace Applications;492
33.1;Abstract;492
33.2;22.1 Introduction;492
33.3;22.2 Detonation Spraying;493
33.3.1;22.2.1 The Spraying Process;493
33.3.2;22.2.2 Equipment Characteristics;494
33.4;22.3 DSC Technology Compared with Other Thermal Spray Techniques;494
33.5;22.4 DSC Coating Applications in Aerospace;496
33.5.1;22.4.1 Tungsten Carbide/Cobalt (WC–Co) Coatings;496
33.5.2;22.4.2 Modified Tungsten Carbide/Cobalt (WC–Co–Cr) Coatings;500
33.5.3;22.4.3 Cr3C2–NiCr Coatings;501
33.5.4;22.4.4 Abradable Coatings;502
33.5.5;22.4.5 Thermal Barrier Coatings (TBCs);502
33.5.6;22.4.6 Coating Refurbishments;503
33.6;22.5 Other Coating Processes;503
33.7;22.6 Summary and Concluding Remarks;506
33.8;Acknowledgments;507
33.9;References;508
34;23 Piezoceramic Materials and Devices for Aerospace Applications;510
34.1;Abstract;510
34.2;23.1 Introduction;510
34.2.1;23.1.1 Origin of Piezoelectricity;511
34.2.2;23.1.2 Piezoelectric Charge Coefficient (D);512
34.2.3;23.1.3 Notation of Axes;512
34.2.4;23.1.4 Structure of PZT;513
34.2.5;23.1.5 Piezoelectric Effect—Importance of Poling;513
34.3;23.2 Preparation of Piezoelectric Powders;515
34.3.1;23.2.1 PZT Materials;515
34.3.2;23.2.2 PMN Materials;516
34.3.3;23.2.3 PZT–PMN Materials;517
34.3.4;23.2.4 PMN–PT Materials;517
34.4;23.3 Fabrication of PZT Devices;517
34.4.1;23.3.1 Fabrication of Multilayered Stacks;517
34.4.2;23.3.2 Amplified PZT Actuators;522
34.4.3;23.3.3 Ring Actuators;522
34.5;23.4 Aerospace Applications of PZT ML Stacks;523
34.5.1;23.4.1 Shape and Vibration Control;523
34.5.2;23.4.2 Structural Health Monitoring (SHM);524
34.6;23.5 Other Applications;525
34.6.1;23.5.1 Piezo Energy Harvesting;525
34.6.2;23.5.2 Piezo Fuel Injection Systems;525
34.7;23.6 Conclusions;525
34.8;Acknowledgments;526
34.9;References;526
35;24 Stealth Materials and Technology for Airborne Systems;528
35.1;Abstract;528
35.2;24.1 Introduction;528
35.3;24.2 History of Stealth Technology;529
35.4;24.3 Threat Perception and Analysis;530
35.5;24.4 Multispectral Stealth;531
35.5.1;24.4.1 Visual Stealth;532
35.5.2;24.4.2 Infrared Stealth;533
35.5.3;24.4.3 Radar Stealth;534
35.5.3.1;24.4.3.1 Radar Cross-Section (RCS);534
35.5.3.2;24.4.3.2 RCS Reduction;534
35.6;24.5 Radar-Absorbing Materials and Structures (RAMS and RAS);536
35.6.1;24.5.1 Radar-Absorbing Materials (RAMs);536
35.6.2;24.5.2 Classification of RAMS;537
35.6.2.1;24.5.2.1 Magnetic Absorbers;537
35.6.2.2;24.5.2.2 Dielectric Absorbers;538
35.6.2.3;24.5.2.3 Conducting Polymers;539
35.6.2.4;24.5.2.4 Nanomaterials;539
35.6.3;24.5.3 Radar-Absorbing Structures (RAS);540
35.7;24.6 Plasma Stealth;541
35.8;24.7 Acoustic Stealth;541
35.9;24.8 Counter Stealth;542
35.10;24.9 Currently Available Stealth Aircraft;542
35.11;24.10 Summary;543
35.12;References;544
36;25 Paints for Aerospace Applications;547
36.1;Abstract;547
36.2;25.1 Importance of Paints for Aerospace Applications;547
36.3;25.2 Selection of Paint Formulations for Aerospace Applications;549
36.4;25.3 Paint Application Areas in Military Aircraft;550
36.4.1;25.3.1 Airframes;550
36.4.2;25.3.2 Radomes;553
36.4.3;25.3.3 Gear Boxes;554
36.4.4;25.3.4 Fuel Tanks;554
36.4.5;25.3.5 Stored Aircraft Weapons;555
36.5;25.4 Special Functional Paints;556
36.5.1;25.4.1 Camouflage Paint Schemes;556
36.5.2;25.4.2 Radar Signal Absorbing Paints (RAPs);558
36.5.3;25.4.3 Fluorescent Paints;558
36.5.4;25.4.4 Anti-Skid Paints;559
36.5.5;25.4.5 Hydrophobic Paints;560
36.5.6;25.4.6 Infrared (IR) Paints;561
36.5.7;25.4.7 Intumescent Paints;562
36.5.8;25.4.8 Miscellaneous Paints;562
36.6;25.5 Properties, Testing and Analysis of Paints;562
36.6.1;25.5.1 Chemical Analysis;563
36.7;25.6 Ageing of Paints;564
36.7.1;25.6.1 Outdoor Weathering;564
36.7.2;25.6.2 Accelerated Weathering;564
36.8;25.7 Airworthiness Certification of Paints;565
36.9;25.8 Volatile Organic Compound (VOC) Regulations;566
36.10;25.9 Paint Monitoring;567
36.11;25.10 Some Important New Developments;567
36.12;25.11 Indian Scenario;568
36.13;25.12 Conclusions;568
36.14;Acknowledgments;568
36.15;References;568
37;26 Elastomers and Adhesives for Aerospace Applications;571
37.1;Abstract;571
37.2;26.1 Elastomers;571
37.2.1;26.1.1 Introduction;571
37.2.2;26.1.2 Varieties of Elastomers;572
37.2.3;26.1.3 Elastomer Compounding;572
37.2.4;26.1.4 Vulcanising;573
37.2.5;26.1.5 Elastomer Types and Properties [8–10];574
37.2.6;26.1.6 Elastomer Aerospace Requirements;582
37.2.7;26.1.7 Aerospace Applications of Elastomers;585
37.3;26.2 Adhesives;586
37.3.1;26.2.1 Introduction;586
37.3.2;26.2.2 Advantages of Adhesive Bonding;586
37.3.3;26.2.3 Mechanisms of Adhesive Bonding;587
37.3.3.1;26.2.3.1 Adhesion;587
37.3.3.2;26.2.3.2 Adherend surface;587
37.3.4;26.2.4 Surface Treatment of Substrates;587
37.3.5;26.2.5 Adhesive Type and Properties;588
37.3.6;26.2.6 Adhesive Joint Design [47, 48];589
37.3.7;26.2.7 Aerospace Applications of Adhesives;590
37.4;26.3 Indian Scenario;592
37.5;26.4 Conclusions;592
37.6;Acknowledgments;592
37.7;References;592