Principles of Marine Bioacoustics

1. Auflage 2009
ISBN: 978-0-387-78365-9
Verlag: Springer-Verlag
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: Adobe DRM (»Systemvoraussetzungen)

E-Book, Englisch, 680 Seiten

Humans have always been fascinated by marine life, from extremely small diatoms to the largest mammal that inhabits our planet, the blue whale. However, studying marine life in the ocean is an extremely difficult propo- tion because an ocean environment is not only vast but also opaque to most instruments and can be a hostile environment in which to perform expe- ments and research. The use of acoustics is one way to effectively study animal life in the ocean. Acoustic energy propagates in water more efficiently than almost any form of energy and can be utilized by animals for a variety of purposes and also by scientists interested in studying their behavior and natural history. However, underwater acoustics have traditionally been in the domain of physicists, engineers and mathematicians. Studying the natural history of animals is in the domain of biologists and physiologists. Und- standing behavior of animals has traditionally involved psychologists and zoologists. In short, marine bioacoustics is and will continue to be a diverse discipline involving investigators from a variety of backgrounds, with very different knowledge and skill sets. The inherent inter-disciplinary nature of marine bioacoustics presents a large challenge in writing a single text that would be meaningful to various investigators and students interested in this field. Yet we have embarked on this challenge to produce a volume that would be helpful to not only beginning investigators but to seasoned researchers.

Whitlow W.L. Au and Mardi C. Hastings have been involved with scientific acoustic research on marine animals for many years and their total combined span of time in this field extends over 5 decades.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Preface;7
2;Contents;9
3;Part I: Principles and Methodology;17
3.1;1;18
3.1.1;Introduction;18
3.1.1.1;1.1 What Is Marine Bioacoustics?;18
3.1.1.2;1.2 Introduction to Underwater Acoustics;20
3.1.1.2.1;1.2.1 Derivation of the Wave Equation;22
3.1.1.2.2;1.2.2 A Simple Harmonic Solution to the One-Dimensional Wave Equation;26
3.1.1.2.3;1.2.3 Particle Displacement and Velocity;27
3.1.1.2.4;1.2.4 Acoustic Intensity and Acoustic Impedance;28
3.1.1.2.5;1.2.5 The Decibel and Sound Pressure Level;29
3.1.1.2.6;1.2.6 Spherical Spreading Transmission Loss;33
3.1.1.3;1.3 Appendix: Some Mathematics;34
3.1.1.3.1;1.3.1 Introduction to Complex Variables;34
3.1.1.3.2;1.3.2 Arithmetic Operations of Complex Numbers;36
3.1.1.3.3;1.3.3 Wave Equation in Different Coordinate Systems;37
3.1.1.4;References;40
3.2;2;41
3.2.1;Measurement and Generation of Underwater Sounds;41
3.2.1.1;2.1 Electroacoustic Transducers;41
3.2.1.2;2.2 Sensitivity and Frequency Response of Piezoelectric Elements;42
3.2.1.2.1;2.2.1 Equivalent Circuit and Resonance;45
3.2.1.2.2;2.2.2 Resonance of Different Shaped Elements;49
3.2.1.2.3;2.2.3 Measurement of Resonant Frequency;51
3.2.1.3;2.3 Hydrophone Sensitivity Using Piezoelectric Parameters;52
3.2.1.4;2.4 Piezoelectric Polymer Material;54
3.2.1.5;2.5 Transducer Configuration;56
3.2.1.6;2.6 Projection of Low-Frequency Sound;59
3.2.1.7;2.7 Calibration of Transducers;60
3.2.1.7.1;2.7.1 Calibration with a Calibrated Hydrophone;62
3.2.1.7.2;2.7.2 Spherical Reciprocity Parameter;65
3.2.1.7.3;2.7.3 Three-Transducer Spherical Wave Reciprocity Calibration;66
3.2.1.7.4;2.7.4 Two-Transducer Reciprocity and Self-Reciprocity;68
3.2.1.8;References;69
3.3;3;71
3.3.1;Transducer Properties and Utilization;71
3.3.1.1;3.1 Near and Far Acoustic Fields;71
3.3.1.2;3.2 Directivity Pattern of Simple Transducers;76
3.3.1.2.1;3.2.1 Beam Pattern of a Thin Cylindrical Transducer;76
3.3.1.2.2;3.2.2 Beam Pattern of a Circular Piston;79
3.3.1.2.3;3.2.3 Beam Pattern of a Rectangular Piston;82
3.3.1.3;3.3 Linear Transducer Arrays;83
3.3.1.3.1;3.3.1 Beam Pattern of a Dipole Array;83
3.3.1.3.2;3.3.2 Beam Pattern of an N-element Array;84
3.3.1.3.3;3.3.3 Product Theorem;89
3.3.1.3.4;3.3.4 Electrically Steered Beam;90
3.3.1.3.5;3.3.5 Multibeam Sonar;94
3.3.1.3.6;3.3.6 Directivity Index;97
3.3.1.4;References;99
3.4;4;100
3.4.1;Acoustic Propagation;100
3.4.1.1;4.1 Basic Principles;100
3.4.1.1.1;4.1.1 Plane Waves and Acoustic Impedance;100
3.4.1.1.2;4.1.1 Surface and Bottom Reflections;102
3.4.1.1.3;4.1.1 Absorption and Refraction;105
3.4.1.2;4.2 Propagation of Sound in the Ocean;107
3.4.1.2.1;4.2.1 Ray Theory;108
3.4.1.2.2;4.2.2 Lloyd Mirror Effect;113
3.4.1.2.3;4.2.3 Propagation of Sound in the Deep Ocean;116
3.4.1.2.3.1;4.2.3.1 Mixed Surface Layer;117
3.4.1.2.3.2;4.2.3.2 The Deep Sound Channel;120
3.4.1.2.3.3;4.2.3.3 The Arctic Sound Channel;123
3.4.1.3;4.3 Propagation in Shallow Water;125
3.4.1.3.1;4.3.1 Ocean Acoustics Software;127
3.4.1.4;4.4 Sound Fields in Tanks;127
3.4.1.5;4.5 Sound Fields in Small Tanks;130
3.4.1.6;References;133
3.5;5;134
3.5.1;Signal Recording and Data Acquisition;134
3.5.1.1;5.1 Measurement of Underwater Sounds;134
3.5.1.2;5.2 Underwater Acoustic Noise;136
3.5.1.2.1;5.2.1 Ambient Noise in the Deep Ocean;137
3.5.1.2.2;5.2.2 Ambient Noise in Shallow Waters;139
3.5.1.2.3;5.2.3 The Effects of Rain on the Ambient Noise;140
3.5.1.2.4;5.2.4 Noise Caused by Ice;140
3.5.1.2.5;5.2.5 Other Sources of Acoustic Noise;141
3.5.1.3;5.3 Electronic Noise;142
3.5.1.4;5.4 The Sonar Equation;145
3.5.1.4.1;5.4.1 Active Form of the Sonar Equation;146
3.5.1.4.2;5.4.2 Passive Form of the Sonar Equation;147
3.5.1.5;5.5 Recordings of Sounds on Magnetic Tape;148
3.5.1.5.1;5.5.1 Linear Analog Magnetic Tape Recorders;148
3.5.1.5.2;5.5.2 Helical Scan Tape Recorders;151
3.5.1.5.3;5.5.3 Digital Audio Tape (DAT);153
3.5.1.5.4;5.5.4 Digital Audio Recorders;154
3.5.1.6;5.6 Principles of Digital Data Acquisition: A/D Conversion;155
3.5.1.6.1;5.6.1 Sampling;156
3.5.1.6.2;5.6.2 Binary Representation;159
3.5.1.6.3;5.6.3 Analog-to-Digital (A/D) Conversion;160
3.5.1.6.4;5.6.4 Data Acquisition Systems;163
3.5.1.7;5.7 Localization with Hydrophone Arrays;168
3.5.1.7.1;5.7.1 The Hyperbola;168
3.5.1.7.2;5.7.2 Sound Localization in a Plane;169
3.5.1.7.3;5.7.3 Sound Localization in Three-Dimensional Space;172
3.5.1.7.4;5.7.4 Linear Equation Approach;173
3.5.1.7.4.1;5.7.4.1 Three Hydrophone in a Line;173
3.5.1.7.4.2;5.7.4.2 Four Hydrophones in a Plane;175
3.5.1.7.4.3;5.7.4.3 Five-Hydrophone Array;178
3.5.1.7.5;5.7.5 Two-Hydrophone Method of Cato;179
3.5.1.7.6;5.7.6 One-Hydrophone Localization;181
3.5.1.7.6.1;5.7.6.1 Using Direct and Surface Reflections Arrivals;181
3.5.1.7.6.2;5.7.6.2 Using the Direct, Surface, and Bottom Arrivals;182
3.5.1.7.7;5.7.7 Measurement of Time of Arrival Differences;183
3.5.1.8;References;187
3.6;6;189
3.6.1;Fourier Analysis;189
3.6.1.1;6.1 The Time and Frequency Domains;189
3.6.1.2;6.2 Foundation of Fourier Analysis: The Fourier Series;190
3.6.1.2.1;6.2.1 Even and Odd Functions;191
3.6.1.2.2;6.2.2 Discrete Spectra from Fourier Series;192
3.6.1.2.3;6.2.3 Exponential Form of the Fourier Series;195
3.6.1.3;6.3 Fourier Transform;196
3.6.1.3.1;6.3.1 The Impulse or Delta Function;198
3.6.1.3.2;6.3.2 Fourier Transformation of Cosine and Sine Functions;199
3.6.1.3.3;6.3.3 Negative Frequency in Fourier Transform;201
3.6.1.3.4;6.3.4 More Fourier Transform Examples;201
3.6.1.4;6.4 Properties of the Fourier Transform;205
3.6.1.4.1;6.4.1 Addition or Linearity Theorem;205
3.6.1.4.2;6.4.2 Time and Frequency Scaling;206
3.6.1.4.3;6.4.3 Time and Frequency Shifting;206
3.6.1.4.4;6.4.4 Modulation Theorem;207
3.6.1.4.5;6.4.5 Convolution Theorem;208
3.6.1.4.6;6.4.6 Correlation Theorem;211
3.6.1.4.7;6.4.7 Rayleigh-Parseval Theorem;212
3.6.1.5;6.5 The Discrete Fourier Transform and Fast Fourier Transform;213
3.6.1.5.1;6.5.1 The Discrete Fourier Transform;213
3.6.1.5.2;6.5.2 The Fast Fourier Transform;215
3.6.1.5.3;6.5.3 DFT Leakage;219
3.6.1.5.4;6.5.4 FFT Windows;220
3.6.1.5.5;6.5.5 Digital Convolution;222
3.6.1.6;6.6 Some Signal Processing Applications;227
3.6.1.6.1;6.6.1 Beamforming;227
3.6.1.6.2;6.6.2 Measuring Ambient Underwater Noise;228
3.6.1.6.3;6.6.3 Time Difference of Arrival Measurements;230
3.6.1.6.4;6.6.4 Reduction of Noise;231
3.6.1.6.5;6.6.5 Ceptrum Analysis: Removal of Multi-paths;234
3.6.1.6.6;6.6.6 Digital Equalization of Planar Transducers;235
3.6.1.7;References;238
3.7;7;239
3.7.1;Auditory Systems of Marine Animals;239
3.7.1.1;7.1 Structure of the Human Ear;239
3.7.1.1.1;7.1.3 The Middle Ear;240
3.7.1.1.2;7.1.3 The Inner Ear;243
3.7.1.1.3;7.1.3 Auditory Nervous System;250
3.7.1.1.4;7.1.3 The Central Auditory Nervous System;253
3.7.1.2;7.2 The Cetacean Ear;256
3.7.1.2.1;7.2.1 Middle Ear;264
3.7.1.2.2;7.2.2 The Inner Ear;267
3.7.1.3;7.3 The Pinniped Ear;274
3.7.1.3.1;7.3.1 The Outer Ear;275
3.7.1.3.2;7.3.2 The Middle Ear;276
3.7.1.3.3;7.3.3 The Inner Ear;278
3.7.1.4;7.4 The Sirean Ear;278
3.7.1.5;7.5 Ears in Fishes;280
3.7.1.5.1;7.5.1 Structure of the Inner Ear;280
3.7.1.5.2;7.5.2 Frequency Discrimination;284
3.7.1.5.3;7.5.3 Auxiliary Structures and Acoustic Pathways to the Ear;285
3.7.1.6;References;290
3.8;8;295
3.8.1;Experimental Psychological and Electrophysiological Methodology;295
3.8.1.1;8.1 Psychoacoustics Procedures;295
3.8.1.1.1;8.1.1 Stimulus Control and Operant Conditioning;296
3.8.1.1.2;8.1.2 Yes/No Response Paradigms in Detection Experiments;297
3.8.1.1.2.1;8.1.2.1 Binary Decision Matrix for Yes/No Detection Experiments;298
3.8.1.1.2.2;8.1.2.2 Receiver-Operating Characteristics Curve;299
3.8.1.1.2.3;8.1.2.3 The Forced Choice Procedure;302
3.8.1.1.3;8.1.3 Psychoacoustics Testing Procedures;305
3.8.1.1.4;8.1.4 Signal Detection Theory;307
3.8.1.1.4.1;8.1.4.1 Weakness of Classical Psychophysical Threshold;307
3.8.1.1.4.2;8.1.4.2 Elements of Signal Detection Theory;309
3.8.1.1.4.3;8.1.4.3 Applying SDT to Marine Mammals;314
3.8.1.2;8.2 Psychoacoustics Discrimination Experiments;316
3.8.1.2.1;8.2.1 Relative Magnitude Difference;317
3.8.1.2.2;8.2.2 Standard Versus Non-Standard Stimuli;318
3.8.1.2.3;8.2.3 Same-Different Stimuli;319
3.8.1.2.4;8.2.4 Matching-to-Sample;320
3.8.1.2.5;8.2.5 Probe Technique in Echolocation;323
3.8.1.3;8.3 Psychoacoustics Techniques for Fish Hearing;324
3.8.1.4;8.4 Electrophysiological Techniques for Marine Mammals;327
3.8.1.4.1;8.4.1 Auditory Evoked Potentials Caused by Brief Signals;328
3.8.1.4.2;8.4.2 Envelope-Following Responses;334
3.8.1.5;8.5 Electrophysiological Techniques for Fishes;340
3.8.1.6;References;342
4;Part II: Acoustics of Marine Animals;347
4.1;9;348
4.1.1;Hearing in Marine Animals;348
4.1.1.1;9.1 Hearing in Dolphins;348
4.1.1.1.1;9.1.1 Hearing Sensitivity;348
4.1.1.1.1.1;9.1.1.1 Sensitivity to Continuous Tones;348
4.1.1.1.1.2;9.1.1.2 Sensitivity to Pulse Tones;353
4.1.1.1.1.3;9.1.1.3 Hearing at Depth;354
4.1.1.1.1.4;9.1.1.4 Temporary Threshold Shift;356
4.1.1.2;9.2 Spectral Analysis Sensitivity;358
4.1.1.2.1;9.2.1 Critical Ratio;358
4.1.1.2.2;9.2.2 Critical Bandwidth;361
4.1.1.2.2.1;9.2.2.1 Masking by a Pure Tone;362
4.1.1.2.3;9.2.3 Frequency Discrimination;364
4.1.1.3;9.3 Directional Hearing Capability;366
4.1.1.3.1;9.3.1 Receiving Beam Patterns;366
4.1.1.3.2;9.3.2 Directivity Index;371
4.1.1.3.3;9.3.3 Sound Localization;374
4.1.1.4;9.4 Hearing in Pinnipeds;377
4.1.1.4.1;9.4.1 Hearing Sensitivity;378
4.1.1.4.1.1;9.4.1.1 Hearing at Depth;383
4.1.1.4.2;9.4.2 Spectral Analysis Sensitivity;384
4.1.1.4.2.1;9.4.2.1 Critical Ratio;384
4.1.1.4.2.2;9.4.2.2 Critical Bandwidth;386
4.1.1.4.2.3;9.4.2.3 Frequency Discrimination;387
4.1.1.4.3;9.4.3 Intensity Discrimination;388
4.1.1.4.4;9.4.4 Sound Localization;388
4.1.1.5;9.5 Hearing in Manatees;394
4.1.1.6;9.6 Hearing in Fishes;395
4.1.1.6.1;9.6.1 Influence of the Lateral Line at Low Frequencies;396
4.1.1.6.2;9.6.2 Hearing Sensitivity;398
4.1.1.6.2.1;9.6.2.1 Pressure vs. Particle Motion;399
4.1.1.6.2.2;9.6.2.2 Temporary Threshold Shift;400
4.1.1.6.2.3;9.6.2.3 Hair Cell Damage;401
4.1.1.6.3;9.6.3 Spectral and Temporal Analysis;404
4.1.1.6.4;9.6.4 Directional Hearing;404
4.1.1.7;References;406
4.2;10;412
4.2.1;Emission of Social Sounds by Marine Animals;412
4.2.1.1;10.1 Social Sound Emissions by Odontocetes;416
4.2.1.1.1;10.1.2 Whistles;419
4.2.1.1.2;10.1.2 Social Sounds: Signature Whistles;430
4.2.1.1.3;10.1.2 Burst Pulses;436
4.2.1.1.4;10.1.2 Geographic Difference and Dialect;448
4.2.1.2;10.2 Sound Emissions by Mysticete Whales;455
4.2.1.2.1;10.2.1 Songs of Mysticete Whales;456
4.2.1.2.2;10.2.2 Calls of Mysticete Whales;470
4.2.1.3;10.3 Underwater Vocalization of Pinnipeds;480
4.2.1.3.1;10.3.1 Underwater Vocalization of Phocids;480
4.2.1.3.2;10.3.2 Underwater Vocalization of Otariids;487
4.2.1.4;10.4 Underwater Vocalization of Sirenians;491
4.2.1.5;10.5 Sound Production by Fishes;492
4.2.1.6;10.6 Sound Production by Snapping Shrimp;496
4.2.1.7;References;501
4.3;11;511
4.3.1;Echolocation in Marine Mammals;511
4.3.1.1;11.1 The Dolphin Transmission System;512
4.3.1.1.1;11.1.1 Echolocation Signals of Dolphins Capable of Whistling;513
4.3.1.1.2;11.1.2 Echolocation Signal of Dolphins That Do Not Whistle;517
4.3.1.1.3;11.1.3 Some Properties of Echolocation Signals;519
4.3.1.1.3.1;11.1.3.1 Transmission Beam Pattern;519
4.3.1.1.3.2;11.1.3.2 Click Intervals;521
4.3.1.1.3.3;11.1.3.3 Click Source Levels;522
4.3.1.2;11.2 Target Detection Capabilities;524
4.3.1.2.1;11.2.1 Target Detection in Noise;525
4.3.1.2.2;11.2.2 Target Detection in Reverberation;531
4.3.1.3;11.3 Target Discrimination Capabilities;537
4.3.1.3.1;11.3.1 Range Resolution Capabilities;537
4.3.1.3.2;11.3.2 Target Structure Discrimination;538
4.3.1.3.2.1;11.3.2.1 Thickness and Material Composition of Plates;538
4.3.1.3.2.2;11.3.2.2 Structure and Material Composition of Hollow Cylinders;539
4.3.1.3.2.3;11.3.2.3 Wall Thickness of Cylinders;544
4.3.1.3.3;11.3.3 Shape Discrimination by Echolocating Dolphins;548
4.3.1.3.3.1;11.3.3.1 Planar Targets;548
4.3.1.3.3.2;11.3.3.2 Spheres and Cylinders;549
4.3.1.3.3.3;11.3.3.3 Cylinders and Cubes;549
4.3.1.3.4;11.3.4 Multidimensional Discrimination;551
4.3.1.4;11.4 Sperm Whale Echolocation;553
4.3.1.5;11.5 Pinniped Echolocation;560
4.3.1.6;11.6 Baleen Whale Echolocation;565
4.3.1.7;References;569
4.4;12;575
4.4.1;Some Signal Processing Techniques;575
4.4.1.1;12.1 Some Useful Signal Processing Concepts;575
4.4.1.1.1;12.1.1 The Envelope Function;575
4.4.1.1.2;12.1.2 Matched Filtering;577
4.4.1.1.3;12.1.3 Center Frequency and RMS Bandwidth;578
4.4.1.1.4;12.1.4 Accuracy in Target Range Determination;580
4.4.1.1.5;12.1.5 Range Resolution;582
4.4.1.1.6;12.1.6 Wideband Ambiguity Function;584
4.4.1.1.7;12.1.7 Time-Bandwidth Product;587
4.4.1.2;12.2 Mammalian Auditory System Modeled as an Energy Detector;589
4.4.1.2.1;12.2.1 Urkowitz Energy Detection Model;589
4.4.1.2.2;12.2.2 Application of Urkowitz Model;592
4.4.1.3;12.3 Signal Processing Models for Signal Recognition;593
4.4.1.3.1;12.3.1 Energy Detection in a Filter Bank;594
4.4.1.3.2;12.3.2 Measure of Feature Recognition;596
4.4.1.3.3;12.3.3 Time Domain Highlight Features;597
4.4.1.3.4;12.3.4 Spectrogram Correlation Model;600
4.4.1.3.5;12.3.5 Comparative Evaluation of Target Recognition Models;602
4.4.1.4;12.4 Artificial Neural Network and Signal Recognition;604
4.4.1.4.1;12.4.1 Backpropagation Network;606
4.4.1.4.2;12.4.2 Counterpropagation Network;608
4.4.1.4.3;12.4.3 Application to Cetacean Social Signals;610
4.4.1.4.3.1;12.4.3.1 Discrimination of Bowhead Whale Sounds;610
4.4.1.4.3.2;12.4.3.2 Categorizing False Killer Whale Sounds;612
4.4.1.4.3.3;12.4.3.3 Detection of Beluga Phonation in Noise;614
4.4.1.4.4;12.4.4 Application to Dolphin Sonar Discrimination;614
4.4.1.5;12.5 Concluding Remarks;627
4.4.1.6;References;627
4.5;13;631
4.5.1;Some Instrumentation for Marine Bioacoustics Research;631
4.5.1.1;13.1 Some Instrumentation for Marine Mammal Acoustics;632
4.5.1.1.1;13.1.2 The Bioacoustic Probe: Acoustic Recording Tag;632
4.5.1.1.2;13.1.2 Digital Acoustic Recording Tag: D-Tag;635
4.5.1.1.3;13.1.2 Other Odontocete Tags;638
4.5.1.2;13.2 Special Techniques to Localize and Track Vocalizing Marine Mammals;639
4.5.1.2.1;13.2.1 Radio Synchronization of Hydrophone Stations;639
4.5.1.2.2;13.2.2 GPS Technique of Hydrophone Position;640
4.5.1.2.3;13.2.3 Broadband Measurement of Dolphin Social Sounds;640
4.5.1.2.4;13.2.4 Measurement of Echolocation Signals: Wild Dolphins;644
4.5.1.2.5;13.2.5 Dolphin Phantom Echo Sonar Experiment;649
4.5.1.3;13.3 Some Instrumentation for Fish Acoustic Research;651
4.5.1.3.1;13.3.1 Acoustic Tags Satellite Tag, Chat Tag, Pop-up Satellite Tag;651
4.5.1.3.2;13.3.2 Active Acoustic Mooring;654
4.5.1.3.3;13.3.3 Active Impedance Control;657
4.5.1.3.4;13.3.4 Non-Invasive Ultrasonic Measurement System;659
4.5.1.4;13.4 General Instrumentation;662
4.5.1.4.1;13.4.1 Autonomous Acoustic Recorder - Bottom Resting;662
4.5.1.4.2;13.4.2 Cornell Pop-Ups;663
4.5.1.4.3;13.4.3 HIMB/PIFSC Ecological Acoustic Recorder (EAR);665
4.5.1.4.4;13.4.4 Scripps HARP;666
4.5.1.5;13.5 Concluding Remarks;667
4.5.1.6;References;668
5;Index;670