Pusch Geological Storage of Highly Radioactive Waste

Current Concepts and Plans for Radioactive Waste Disposal
1. Auflage 2009
ISBN: 978-3-540-77333-7
Verlag: Springer-Verlag
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: Adobe DRM (»Systemvoraussetzungen)

E-Book, Englisch, 379 Seiten

The book assesses current ideas for long-term disposal of highly radioactive waste. Different types of rock are discussed and assessed with respect to practical difficulties in constructing a repository, and the efficiency of isolating radioactive waste.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Pusch, Roland

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Introduction;18
1.1; National and International Work;18
1.2; Basic Principle of Final Storage of Hazardous Waste;19
1.3; The CROP Project;20
1.3.1; Crystalline Rock;22
1.3.2; Salt Rock;22
1.3.3; Argillaceous Rock and Clastic Clay;23
1.4; The Low Risk Deposition Technology Project;23
1.5; The ESDRED Project;26
1.6; Options for Disposal of HLW;26
2;to 1 The Geological Base for Developing and Assessing Concepts for HLW Disposal;29
2.1;1.1 Rock Types Considered for HLW Disposal;29
2.1.1;1.1.1 Strain in the Shallow Earth Crust;30
2.1.2;1.1.2 Elements in the Earth Crust that can Affect Isolation of Radionuclides in HLW Repositories -- Rock Structure;30
2.1.2.1;1.1.2.1 General;30
2.1.2.2;1.1.2.2 Categorization of Structural Elements;31
2.1.2.3;1.1.2.3 Evolution of Rock Structure;32
2.2;1.2 Crystalline and Argillaceous Rock;33
2.2.1;1.2.1 Evolution of Discontinuities;33
2.2.2;1.2.2 Regular or Random Structural Constitution;36
2.3;1.3 Salt Rock;38
2.4;1.4 Clastic Clay;40
2.5;1.5 The Importance of Scale;41
2.5.1;1.5.1 Crystalline Rock;41
2.5.2;1.5.2 Salt and Argillaceous Rock, and Clastic Clay;43
3;to 2 The Rock;45
3.1;2.1 What is Required?;45
3.2;2.2 Structure-Controlled Properties of Crystalline and Argillaceous Rock;45
3.2.1;2.2.1 General;45
3.2.2;2.2.2 Rock Strength;46
3.2.3;2.2.3 Scale Dependence of Strength and Conductivity;47
3.3;2.3 Structure-Controlled Properties of Salt Rock and Clastic Clay;56
3.3.1;2.3.1 Salt Rock;56
3.3.2;2.3.2 Clastic Clay;56
3.4;2.4 What Role do Discontinuities Play in Repository Rock?;58
3.4.1;2.4.1 Excavation-Induced Disturbance;58
3.4.1.1;2.4.1.1 Disturbance by Stress Changes;58
3.4.1.2;2.4.1.2 Disturbance by Construction -- Blasting;61
3.4.1.3;2.4.1.3 Disturbance by Water-Jet Cutting;71
3.4.1.4;2.4.1.4 Disturbance by Boring -- TBM Technique;71
3.5;2.5 The Integrated Performance of Host Rock;73
3.5.1;2.5.1 What is Important?;73
3.5.2;2.5.2 Overview of Rock Issues;73
4;to 3 Engineered Barriers and Their Interaction with Rock;87
4.1;3.1 Engineered Barriers;87
4.2;3.2 HLW;87
4.3;3.3 Canisters;90
4.3.1;3.3.1 Design and Material;90
4.3.2;3.3.2 Physical Performance of the Presently Proposed SKB Canister;92
4.3.2.1;3.3.2.1 Evolution of Temperature;93
4.3.2.2;3.3.2.2 Internal Pressurization;94
4.3.2.3;3.3.2.3 External Pressurization;94
4.3.3;3.3.3 The HIPOW Canister;98
4.3.4;3.3.4 Chemical Integrity of Copper Canisters;99
4.4;3.4 Clay;100
4.4.1;3.4.1 The Role of Clays in a Repository;100
4.4.2;3.4.2 Smectite Minerals;101
4.4.3;3.4.3 Microstructural Constitution of Smectite Clays -- A Key Issue;104
4.5;3.5 Buffer;104
4.5.1;3.5.1 Function;104
4.5.2;3.5.2 Evolution of the Buffer;108
4.5.3;3.5.3 Wetting Rate of the Buffer;109
4.5.4;3.5.4 Mechanical Processes in the Buffer;114
4.5.5;3.5.5 Maturation of Buffer Submerged in Smectite Mud;115
4.5.6;3.5.6 Modelling of Buffer Evolution -- Conceptual Version;118
4.5.6.1;3.5.6.1 Migration of Liquid Water and Vapour;118
4.5.6.2;3.5.6.2 Swelling and Compression;119
4.5.7;3.5.7 Modelling of Buffer Evolution " The "Codes";121
4.5.7.1;3.5.7.1 General;121
4.5.7.2;3.5.7.2 "COMPASS", a Code Used for Predicting the Evolution of Buffer in Deposition Holes;123
4.5.8;3.5.8 Can One Predict with Accuracy Even the Simpliest Process, i.e. Water Saturation, by Using the Proposed Codes?;125
4.5.8.1;3.5.8.1 Comparison of Predictions and Recordings;125
4.5.8.2;3.5.8.2 Migration of Liquid Water and Vapour;127
4.5.9;3.5.9 How does the Predicted Buffer Performance Agree with the Recorded?;128
4.5.9.1;3.5.9.1 Reference Case;128
4.5.9.2;3.5.9.2 Theoretical Simulation of the Evolution of the Buffer by Using the Codes;132
4.5.10;3.5.10 How do Predicted and Recorded Canister Movements in the Clay Agree?;133
4.5.10.1;3.5.10.1 General;133
4.5.10.2;3.5.10.2 Stress and Strain;134
4.5.10.3;3.5.10.3 Creep;136
4.5.10.4;3.5.10.4 Conclusive Remarks Concerning the Stress/Strain Behaviour of Buffer and Backfills;142
4.5.11;3.5.11 Long-Term Function of Buffer Clay;143
4.5.11.1;3.5.11.1 General;143
4.5.11.2;3.5.11.2 Conversion of Smectite to Non-expanding Minerals;143
4.5.11.3;3.5.11.3 Natural Analogues;146
4.5.11.4;3.5.11.4 Laboratory Experiments;146
4.5.11.5;3.5.11.5 Geochemical Modelling;159
4.5.12;3.5.12 Impact on Buffer and Backfills of Chemical Reactions with Other Barriers;160
4.5.12.1;3.5.12.1 Interaction of Canister Material and Buffer Clay;160
4.5.12.2;3.5.12.2 Interaction of Concrete and Backfills of Expandable Clay;166
4.5.13;3.5.13 Other Processes of Importance to the Function of Buffer Clay;170
4.5.13.1;3.5.13.1 Impact of Gas Under Pressure;170
4.5.13.2;3.5.13.2 Vapour Effects;171
4.5.13.3;3.5.13.3 Microbial Effects;174
4.5.13.4;3.5.13.4 Influence of Radiation;175
4.5.13.5;3.5.13.5 Influence of Electrical Potentials;176
5;to 4 Repository Concepts for HLW Including Spent Fuel and Waste with Long-Lived Radionuclides;183
5.1;4.1 Major Principles of Storing HLW;183
5.2;4.2 Repository Concepts;183
5.2.1;4.2.1 The Complete Repository;183
5.2.2;4.2.2 Alternative Concepts;186
5.3;4.3 Canisters, Buffers and Backfills -- The Engineered Barriers;187
5.3.1;4.3.1 General Principles;187
5.3.2;4.3.2 Canisters;187
5.3.3;4.3.3 Buffers;187
5.3.4;4.3.4 Backfills;188
5.3.5;4.3.5 Plugs;188
5.3.6;4.3.6 Grouts;191
5.3.6.1;4.3.6.1 Grouting for Tightening Rock in Deposition Holes and Around Plugs;191
5.3.6.2;4.3.6.2 Longevity Issues;195
5.4;4.4 Construction and Performance of Buffers and Backfills in Crystalline Rock;196
5.4.1;4.4.1 The KBS-3V Concept;196
5.4.1.1;4.4.1.1 Buffer;196
5.4.1.2;4.4.1.2 Backfill;197
5.4.1.3;4.4.1.3 General Strategy for Backfilling and Plugging;203
5.4.1.4;4.4.1.4 Safety Issues;205
5.4.2;4.4.2 KBS-3V Type Concepts with More Than One Canisters;207
5.4.2.1;4.4.2.1 The VDH Concept;207
5.4.3;4.4.3 Wide Rooms with Arrays of Canisters;212
5.4.4;4.4.4 Inclined Deposition Holes with Single Canisters;212
5.4.5;4.4.5 Very Long Holes (KBS-3H);215
5.4.5.1;4.4.5.1 The Supercontainer Principle;215
5.4.5.2;4.4.5.2 Impact on the Chemical Integrity of the Buffer Clay;216
5.4.5.3;4.4.5.3 Evolution of Buffer Clay;217
5.4.5.4;4.4.5.4 Impact of Tectonic Movements;220
5.4.5.5;4.4.5.5 Practicality;220
5.4.6;4.4.6 Assessment of the Concepts Applied to Crystalline Rock;220
5.4.6.1;4.4.6.1 KBS-3--V -- Reference Case;221
5.4.6.2;4.4.6.2 Wide Rooms with Deposition Holes with Single Canisters;221
5.4.6.3;4.4.6.3 Steep Holes with Two or More Canisters;222
5.4.6.4;4.4.6.4 Inclined Deposition Holes with Single Canisters;223
5.4.6.5;4.4.6.5 Very Long Holes;223
5.4.7;4.4.7 The "Optimal" Concept;224
5.4.7.1;4.4.7.1 Design Principle;225
5.4.7.2;4.4.7.2 The Canister;226
5.4.7.3;4.4.7.3 The Supercontainer;226
5.4.7.4;4.4.7.4 The Buffer;226
5.4.7.5;4.4.7.5 The Clay Mud;227
5.4.7.6;4.4.7.6 The Backfill;230
5.4.7.7;4.4.7.7 Backfilling of Other Rooms Than Deposition Tunnels and Holes;231
5.4.7.8;4.4.7.8 Detailed Strategy for Optimal Backfilling of Tunnels, Rooms and Shafts;232
5.4.7.9;4.4.7.9 Plugs;237
5.5;4.5 Construction and Performance of Buffers and Backfills in Salt Rock;238
5.5.1;4.5.1 General;238
5.5.2;4.5.2 Description of Disposal Concepts;238
5.5.2.1;4.5.2.1 Bedded Salt;238
5.5.2.2;4.5.2.2 Domal Salt;241
5.5.3;4.5.3 Required Function of the Repository;242
5.5.3.1;4.5.3.1 Bedded Salt;242
5.5.3.2;4.5.3.2 Domal Salt;242
5.5.4;4.5.4 Current Repository Design Principles;243
5.5.4.1;4.5.4.1 Bedded Salt;243
5.5.4.2;4.5.4.2 Domal Salt;244
5.5.5;4.5.5 Engineered Barrier Systems;245
5.5.5.1;4.5.5.1 Bedded Salt;245
5.5.5.2;4.5.5.2 Domal Salt;246
5.5.6;4.5.6 Design and Construction;247
5.5.6.1;4.5.6.1 Bedded Salt;247
5.5.6.2;4.5.6.2 Domal Salt;247
5.5.7;4.5.7 Conceptual and Mathematical Models;249
5.5.7.1;4.5.7.1 Bedded Salt;249
5.5.7.2;4.5.7.2 Domal Salt;252
5.5.7.3;4.5.7.3 Conclusive Remarks Concerning Function and Modelling of Repositories in Salt Rock;259
5.6;4.6 Construction and Performance of Buffers and Backfills in Argillaceous Rock;260
5.6.1;4.6.1 General;260
5.6.2;4.6.2 National Concepts;262
5.6.2.1;4.6.2.1 General;262
5.6.2.2;4.6.2.2 Belgium;263
5.6.2.3;4.6.2.3 Spain;265
5.6.2.4;4.6.2.4 France;267
5.6.2.5;4.6.2.5 Switzerland;268
5.6.2.6;4.6.2.6 Conclusive Remarks Concerning Function and Modelling of Repositories in Argillaceous Rock;272
5.7;4.7 Borehole Sealing;274
5.7.1;4.7.1 The SKB/POSIVA Study;274
5.7.2;4.7.2 Tight Seals;274
5.7.3;4.7.3 The "Container" Concept;282
5.7.4;4.7.4 The "Couronne" Concept;282
5.7.5;4.7.5 The "Pellet" Concept;282
5.8;4.8 Stabilization of Fracture Zones in Boreholes;286
5.8.1;4.8.1 Principle;286
5.8.2;4.8.2 Material;286
5.8.3;4.8.3 Construction of Concrete Plugs in Stabilized Parts of Boreholes;287
5.8.3.1;4.8.3.1 Performance;288
6;to 5 Underground Laboratories (URLs);290
6.1;5.1 Needs and Objectives;290
6.2;5.2 National Underground Laboratories in Crystalline Rock;291
6.2.1;5.2.1 General;291
6.2.2;5.2.2 Stripa (SKB);291
6.2.3;5.2.3 öspö (SKB);292
6.2.4;5.2.4 Grimsel (NAGRA);293
6.2.5;5.2.5 Pinawa (AECL);294
6.2.6;5.2.6 Onkalo (POSIVA);294
6.3;5.3 National Underground Laboratories in Salt Rock;295
6.3.1;5.3.1 General;295
6.3.2;5.3.2 Bedded Salt;295
6.3.3;5.3.3 Domal Salt;298
6.4;5.4 National Underground Laboratories in Argillaceous Rock;300
6.4.1;5.4.1 General;300
6.4.2;5.4.2 Research and Development;301
6.4.2.1;5.4.2.1 Rock Structure;301
6.4.3;5.4.3 Activities in URLs in Argillaceous Rock;301
6.4.3.1;5.4.3.1 HADES;301
6.4.3.2;5.4.3.2 Mont Terri;302
6.4.3.3;5.4.3.3 Meuse/Haute Marne UR [1];303
6.5;5.5 Study of Rock Properties in the URLs;303
6.5.1;5.5.1 Rock Structure, Geohydrology and Geochemistry;303
6.5.2;5.5.2 Stability;309
6.5.3;5.5.3 EDZ;311
6.5.3.1;5.5.3.1 Crystalline Rock;311
6.5.3.2;5.5.3.2 Salt Rock;312
6.5.3.3;5.5.3.3 Argillaceous Rock;312
6.6;5.6 Buffer and Backfill;313
6.6.1;5.6.1 Preparation and Manufacturing;313
6.6.2;5.6.2 Handling and Placement;314
6.7;5.7 Instrumentation and Data Acquisition;317
6.7.1;5.7.1 What Shall be Measured?;317
6.7.2;5.7.2 Practicalities;318
6.7.3;5.7.3 Selection of Instruments;319
6.7.4;5.7.4 A Real Problem;319
6.7.5;5.7.5 Data Acquisition Principles;320
6.7.5.1;5.7.5.1 Data Collection, Storage and Handling;320
6.8;5.8 Testing;321
6.8.1;5.8.1 Principles;321
6.8.2;5.8.2 Powering;322
6.8.3;5.8.3 The Role of Rock as Supplier of Water for Wetting of the Buffer;323
6.8.4;5.8.4 Buffer Performance;323
6.8.4.1;5.8.4.1 Maturation Rate;323
6.8.5;5.8.5 Conceptual and Theoretical Models;326
6.8.5.1;5.8.5.1 Selection of Processes to be Modelled;326
6.8.5.2;5.8.5.2 Comparison of Theoretical Predictions and Experimental Data Concerning the Interaction of Rock and Buffer;327
6.9;5.9 Plug Construction;328
6.10;5.10 Borehole Sealing;329
6.11;5.11 General Conclusions from URL Activities;331
6.11.1;5.11.1 Rock Structure, Rock Mechanics, and Groundwater Flow;331
6.11.2;5.11.2 Buffer and Backfills;333
6.11.3;5.11.3 Practical Handling;333
6.12;5.12 Monitoring of Real Repositories;333
7;to 6 Site Selection;335
7.1;6.1 Deep or Shallow?;335
7.2;6.2 Criteria for Locating Repositories at Depth Crystalline Rock;335
7.3;6.3 Content of Valuables;336
7.4;6.4 Mechanical Stability;336
7.4.1;6.4.1 General;336
7.4.2;6.4.2 Impact of Tectonics;337
7.4.3;6.4.3 Structural Implications;339
7.4.4;6.4.4 Block Movements;340
7.4.5;6.4.5 Evolution of Low-Order Discontinuities;341
7.4.6;6.4.6 Energy Issues;346
7.4.7;6.4.7 Numerical Modelling of Large-Scale Strain;347
7.4.8;6.4.8 Impact of Glaciation and Deglaciation;350
7.4.8.1;6.4.8.1 Loading;351
7.4.8.2;6.4.8.2 Glacial Erosion;351
7.5;6.5 Salt and Argillaceous Rock;357
7.6;6.6 Electrical Potentials;357
7.6.1;6.6.1 Natural Potentials;357
7.6.2;6.6.2 Measurements in the Near-Field;358
7.6.3;6.6.3 Impact on Buffer;358
7.6.4;6.6.4 Impact of Rock Structure;358
7.7;6.7 Practical Examples;359
7.7.1;6.7.1 Cystalline Rock;359
7.7.2;6.7.2 Argillaceous Rock, Salt Rock and Clastic Clay;361
7.7.3;6.7.3 Electrical Fields;362
7.8;6.8 The Ideal Location of a Repository;363
7.9;6.9 Mine Repositories;364
7.9.1;6.9.1 General;364
7.9.2;6.9.2 Combined Mining and HLW Deposition;367
8;to 7 Risk Assessment;370
8.1;7.1 General;370
8.2;7.2 Required Performance of the Repository;371
8.2.1;7.2.1 Sweden;371
8.2.1.1;7.2.1.1 Spent Fuel;372
8.2.1.2;7.2.1.2 Transport;372
8.2.1.3;7.2.1.3 Impact of Glaciation and Performance and Evolution of the Repository;373
8.2.2;7.2.2 Switzerland;373
8.2.2.1;7.2.2.1 Stage 1: Operational Stage;374
8.2.2.2;7.2.2.2 Stage 2: Monitoring Stage;374
8.2.2.3;7.2.2.3 Stage 3: Post-Closure Stage;375
8.2.3;7.2.3 Belgium;375
8.3;7.3 Current Repository Design Principles;376
8.3.1;7.3.1 Repositories in Crystalline and Argillaceous Rock;376
8.3.2;7.3.2 Repositories in Salt Rock;376
8.3.3;7.3.3 Repositories in Clastic Clay;377
8.4;7.4 Design Requirements Related to Safety;377
8.4.1;7.4.1 EBS;377
8.4.2;7.4.2 Design Requirements Related to the Assessment of Long-Term Radiological Safety;378
8.4.3;7.4.3 Design Requirements Related to Safety During the Operational Phase;379
8.4.4;7.4.4 Design Requirements Related to Criticality;379
8.4.5;7.4.5 Design Requirements Related to Non-radiological Environmental Impact;379
8.4.6;7.4.6 Design Requirements Related to Flexibility;379
8.4.7;7.4.7 Design Requirements Related to Retrievability of the Waste;380
8.4.8;7.4.8 Design Requirements Related to Technical Feasibility;380
9;Index;381