Rai / Varma Diversity and Biotechnology of Ectomycorrhizae

1. Auflage 2010
ISBN: 978-3-642-15196-5
Verlag: Springer
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: Adobe DRM (»Systemvoraussetzungen)

E-Book, Englisch, 459 Seiten

Ectomycorrhizal fungi play multifunctional roles during symbioses with higher plants. They can serve as bioprotectors, biofertilizers, bioremediators and stress indicators. Further, they are the true 'mycoindicators' of forest ecosystems, where an enormous diversity of ectomycorrhizal fungi can be found. Some ectomycorrhizal fungi also produce edible sporocarps, i.e., fruiting bodies, which are important for the food industry. Ectomycorrhizal fungi also produce various metal chelating molecules, which are of remarkable biotechnological significance and which also secrete useful secondary metabolites. Molecular approaches are required for the identification and differentiation of fungi forming symbioses with higher plants, while molecular tools are important to understand how genes are expressed during symbiosis with higher plants. Students, researchers and teachers of botany, mycology, microbiology, forestry, and biotechnology will find a valuable source of information in this Soil Biology volume.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Rai, Mahendra

Varma, Ajit

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Preface;8
2;Contents;10
3;Contributors;14
4;Part I: Diversity, Morphology and Applications;18
4.1;Chapter 1: The Importance of Ectomycorrhizas for the Growth of Dipterocarps and the Efficacy of Ectomycorrhizal Inoculation Schemes;19
4.1.1;1.1 Introduction;19
4.1.2;1.2 Fungal Species Associated with Dipterocarps;20
4.1.3;1.3 Nutrient Relationships;20
4.1.4;1.4 Inoculation Experiments;21
4.1.4.1;1.4.1 Inoculation with Single Species;22
4.1.4.1.1;1.4.1.1 Malaysian Inoculation Experiments;22
4.1.4.1.2;1.4.1.2 Indonesian Inoculation Experiments;23
4.1.4.2;1.4.2 Other Inoculation Methods;24
4.1.4.2.1;1.4.2.1 Mycorrhizal Tablets;24
4.1.4.2.2;1.4.2.2 Mother Tree Inoculation;24
4.1.4.3;1.4.3 Production of Inoculum;24
4.1.4.4;1.4.4 Field Experiments;25
4.1.5;1.5 Under What Conditions Will EcM Inoculation Be Beneficial?;26
4.1.5.1;1.5.1 Successful Inoculation Schemes;27
4.1.5.2;1.5.2 When and Where to Inoculate?;27
4.1.6;1.6 Conclusions;28
4.1.7;References;28
4.2;Chapter 2: The Ectomycorrhizal Symbiosis in South America: Morphology, Colonization, and Diversity;34
4.2.1;2.1 Introduction;34
4.2.2;2.2 ECM Studies in South America;35
4.2.3;2.3 Morphological and Anatomical Features of the ECM in South America;40
4.2.4;2.4 Conclusion;50
4.2.5;References;50
4.3;Chapter 3: Ectomycorrhizal Inoculum and Inoculation Techniques;57
4.3.1;3.1 Introduction;57
4.3.2;3.2 Isolation and Manipulation of Fungal Pure Cultures, Nutrient Media;58
4.3.3;3.3 Synthesis of Ectomycorrhizae in Controlled Conditions;59
4.3.3.1;3.3.1 Fungal Cultures Preparation;59
4.3.3.2;3.3.2 Inoculation Techniques;60
4.3.3.2.1;3.3.2.1 Sterile Techniques;60
4.3.3.2.1.1;Petri Dishes;60
4.3.3.2.1.2;Flasks and Jars;61
4.3.3.2.1.3;Test Tubes;61
4.3.3.2.1.4;Polycarbonate Boxes;62
4.3.3.2.2;3.3.2.2 Semi- and Non-sterile Techniques;62
4.3.3.2.2.1;Growth Pouches;62
4.3.3.2.2.2;Pots, Containers, Vessels;63
4.3.4;3.4 Greenhouse and Nursery Inoculation;64
4.3.4.1;3.4.1 Inoculum Types;64
4.3.4.1.1;3.4.1.1 Natural Inoculum (Soil, Humus, Ectomycorrhizae);64
4.3.4.1.2;3.4.1.2 Basidiospores;64
4.3.4.1.3;3.4.1.3 Vegetative (Mycelial) Inoculum;65
4.3.4.1.3.1;Mycelial Suspension (Slurry);65
4.3.4.1.3.2;Vermiculite-Peat (Substrate Carrier) Inoculum;66
4.3.4.1.3.3;Alginate-Bead Inoculum;66
4.3.4.2;3.4.2 Methods of Inoculum Application;67
4.3.4.2.1;3.4.2.1 Basidiospores;67
4.3.4.2.2;3.4.2.2 Natural and Vegetative Inoculum;69
4.3.5;3.5 Field Inoculation;70
4.3.6;3.6 Commercial Inoculum;71
4.3.7;3.7 Conclusion;72
4.3.8;References;72
5;Part II: Biotechnological Aspect of ECM;78
5.1;Chapter 4: Systematics and Ecology of Tropical Ectomycorrhizal Fungi Using Molecular Approaches;79
5.1.1;4.1 Evaluation of Tropical ECM Species Composition;79
5.1.1.1;4.1.1 Introduction;79
5.1.1.2;4.1.2 ECM Systematics and Diversity Assessment;81
5.1.1.2.1;4.1.2.1 ECM Status of Tropical Trees;82
5.1.1.2.2;4.1.2.2 Ectomycorrhizas Diversity;82
5.1.2;4.2 Genet Distribution of Russula sp. foetentinae in a Tropical Rainforest;87
5.1.2.1;4.2.1 Introduction;87
5.1.2.2;4.2.2 Methods;89
5.1.2.2.1;4.2.2.1 Spatial Randomness;89
5.1.2.2.2;4.2.2.2 Genotype Identification;89
5.1.2.3;4.2.3 Discussion;90
5.1.3;4.3 Conclusion;93
5.1.4;References;93
5.2;Chapter 5: The Molecular Ectomycorrhizal Fungus Essence in Association: A Review of Differentially Expressed Fungal Genes During Symbiosis Formation;98
5.2.1;5.1 Introduction;98
5.2.2;5.2 Ectomycorrhizal Genes Differentially Expressed During Symbiosis Formation;99
5.2.2.1;5.2.1 Growth and Cell Organization Genes;99
5.2.2.2;5.2.2 Morphogenesis;103
5.2.2.3;5.2.3 Energy and Metabolism;103
5.2.2.3.1;5.2.3.1 Carbohydrate Metabolism;103
5.2.2.3.2;5.2.3.2 Lipid Metabolism;110
5.2.2.3.3;5.2.3.3 Amino Acid and Protein Metabolism;110
5.2.2.3.4;5.2.3.4 Nucleic Acids Metabolism;111
5.2.2.4;5.2.4 Protein Synthesis and Interaction, Transcriptional and Translational Regulation;111
5.2.2.5;5.2.5 Ions, Amino Acids and Peptides Transports;111
5.2.2.6;5.2.6 Signaling and Structural Membrane Proteins;120
5.2.2.7;5.2.7 DNA/RNA Processing;120
5.2.2.8;5.2.8 Cell Defense and Apoptosis;123
5.2.3;5.3 Conclusions;127
5.2.4;References;128
5.3;Chapter 6: Agrobacterium tumefaciens-Mediated Transformation of Ectomycorrhizal Fungi;133
5.3.1;6.1 Introduction;133
5.3.2;6.2 Genetic Modification of ECM Fungi with Traditional Transformation Methods;134
5.3.3;6.3 Agrobacterium-Mediated Transformation of Fungi;135
5.3.4;6.4 AMT of ECM Fungi;136
5.3.5;6.5 AMT-Mechanisms: T-DNA Transfer to the Host Cell;137
5.3.5.1;6.5.1 Pretransfer Bacterial Processes Leading to T-DNA Mobilization;138
5.3.5.2;6.5.2 T-Strand Transfer;138
5.3.5.3;6.5.3 Host Cell Events Leading to T-DNA Integration in the Host Genome;139
5.3.6;6.6 Molecular Mechanism of AMT in Fungi;140
5.3.7;6.7 Use of AMT in Fungal Genetics;141
5.3.8;6.8 AMT-Mediated Random Gene Tagging;141
5.3.9;6.9 Is Random T-DNA Tagging of Fungal Genome Really at Random?;142
5.3.10;6.10 Targeted Gene Disruption by AMT;143
5.3.11;6.11 Laccaria bicolor Represents a Special Challenge for AMT as a Reverse Genetic Tool;144
5.3.12;6.12 Conclusion;146
5.3.13;References;146
5.4;Chapter 7: Biotechnological Processes Used in Controlled Ectomycorrhizal Practices;152
5.4.1;7.1 Introduction;152
5.4.2;7.2 Criteria to Adopt an Inoculum Formulation;154
5.4.3;7.3 Spore-Based Fungal Inoculum;154
5.4.3.1;7.3.1 Formulation of Spore Inoculums and Effect on Plant Growth;154
5.4.4;7.4 Mycelium-Based Fungal Inoculums;155
5.4.4.1;7.4.1 Fungal Isolation from Fruit Bodies;155
5.4.4.2;7.4.2 Formulation of Mycelium-Based Inoculums and Effect on Plant Growth;157
5.4.4.2.1;7.4.2.1 Vermiculite-Peat Inoculums (Marx and Bryan 1975);157
5.4.4.2.2;7.4.2.2 Encapsulation of Hyphal Fragments Within Beads of Alginate Gel (Mauperin et al. 1987);158
5.4.4.2.3;7.4.2.3 Controlled Ectomycorrhization in Glasshouse, Nursery, and Field Conditions;159
5.4.4.2.3.1;Screening for Efficient Fungal Isolates in Controlled Conditions;159
5.4.4.2.3.2;Controlled Inoculation in Field Conditions;159
5.4.5;7.5 Conclusion;161
5.4.6;References;161
5.5;Chapter 8: Signaling in Ectomycorrhizal Symbiosis Establishment;165
5.5.1;8.1 Introduction;165
5.5.2;8.2 Ectomycorrhiza Formation;166
5.5.3;8.3 Rhizospheric Signals Emitted During the Preinfection;167
5.5.4;8.4 Proteins Involved in Fungal Attachment to the Root Host Surface and Formation of Symbiotic Interface;171
5.5.5;8.5 Ectomycorrhizal Morphogenesis;174
5.5.6;8.6 Induction of Plant Defense Responses by Ectomycorrhizal Fungi;176
5.5.7;8.7 Conclusions;178
5.5.8;References;178
5.6;Chapter 9: RNA Silencing in Ectomycorrhizal Fungi;184
5.6.1;9.1 Introduction;184
5.6.2;9.2 RNAi Mechanisms;185
5.6.3;9.3 siRNA-Dependent RNA Silencing;186
5.6.3.1;9.3.1 siRNAs;186
5.6.3.2;9.3.2 Sources of dsRNA in Cells;187
5.6.3.3;9.3.3 Cytosolic siRNA-Mediated PTGS;187
5.6.4;9.4 miRNA-Mediated Translational Arrest;188
5.6.5;9.5 RdRP Amplification of the Silencing Trigger;189
5.6.6;9.6 siRISC Can Operate on Target mRNAs in Nuclear Environment Also;191
5.6.7;9.7 Epigenetic Effects Associated with RNAi;191
5.6.8;9.8 Use of RNAi as a Genetic Tool;192
5.6.9;9.9 RNA Silencing in Fungi;196
5.6.10;9.10 RNA Silencing Protein Machinery in Fungi;196
5.6.11;9.11 Viral Origin of RNAi in Fungi;197
5.6.12;9.12 RNA Silencing in Different Fungi;198
5.6.13;9.13 How RNAi Is Experimentally Initiated in Fungi;199
5.6.14;9.14 Simultaneous Silencing of Genes with a Single Trigger in Fungi;200
5.6.15;9.15 Use of RNAi as a Reverse Genetic Tool in Fungi;203
5.6.16;9.16 Gene Silencing in Ectomycorrhizal Fungi;203
5.6.17;9.17 Conclusion;207
5.6.18;References;207
6;Part III: Functions and Interactions;214
6.1;Chapter 10: Ectomycoremediation: An Eco-Friendly Technique for the Remediation of Polluted Sites;215
6.1.1;10.1 Introduction;215
6.1.2;10.2 Phytoremediation: An Alternative Method for the Remediation of Contaminated Sites;216
6.1.3;10.3 Ectomycorrhizal Associations and Their Significance for Phytoremediation;217
6.1.3.1;10.3.1 The Contribution of Rhizosphere and Ectomycorrhizosphere to Bioremediation;219
6.1.3.2;10.3.2 Ectomycoremediation of Organic Xenobiotics;222
6.1.3.2.1;10.3.2.1 Petroleum Hydrocarbons;223
6.1.3.2.2;10.3.2.2 Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons;224
6.1.3.2.3;10.3.2.3 Nitro-aromatics;226
6.1.3.2.4;10.3.2.4 Chlorinated Aromatic Hydrocarbons;226
6.1.3.3;10.3.3 Ectomycoremediation of Heavy Metals;227
6.1.4;10.4 Conclusions;229
6.1.5;References;230
6.2;Chapter 11: Metal Elements and the Diversity and Function of Ectomycorrhizal Communities;236
6.2.1;11.1 Introduction;236
6.2.2;11.2 Metal Element Cycling in ECM Forests;237
6.2.2.1;11.2.1 Biogeochemical Transformations of Metals in ECM Forest Soil;237
6.2.2.2;11.2.2 Weathering and Mineralization;237
6.2.2.3;11.2.3 Litter Decomposition;238
6.2.2.4;11.2.4 Metal Element Cycling and Translocation by ECMF;239
6.2.2.5;11.2.5 Relevance of Fungal Soil Metal Transformations;240
6.2.3;11.3 Metal Tolerance of ECM Associations;241
6.2.3.1;11.3.1 Metal Toxicity;241
6.2.3.2;11.3.2 Mechanisms of Metal Tolerance in ECMF;242
6.2.3.3;11.3.3 Protection of Host Trees;244
6.2.3.4;11.3.4 Are ECMF More Resistant to Toxic Metals Than Their Host Trees?;244
6.2.3.5;11.3.5 Can Metal-Resistant ECMF Confer Resistance to Their Host Trees?;244
6.2.3.6;11.3.6 ECMF and Host Tree Nutrient Status and Metal Uptake;245
6.2.3.7;11.3.7 Can ECM Symbiosis Confer Resistance to Sensitive Host Tree Genotypes?;246
6.2.4;11.4 Population Genetics of Adaptive Metal Tolerance in ECMF;246
6.2.5;11.5 Distribution of Metal Elements in ECMF;248
6.2.6;11.6 Transfer of Trace Metals to Vertebrate Food Webs via ECMF;250
6.2.7;11.7 Diversity and Structure of ECM Communities Exposed to Metal Toxicity;251
6.2.8;11.8 Biodiversity and Conservation;252
6.2.9;11.9 Conclusions;253
6.2.10;References;254
6.3;Chapter 12: A Conceptual Framework for Up-Scaling Ecological Processes and Application to Ectomycorrhizal Fungi;260
6.3.1;12.1 Introduction;260
6.3.2;12.2 Addressing the Up-Scaling Problem;261
6.3.3;12.3 An Analytic Conceptual Framework for Integration Across Scales;264
6.3.3.1;12.3.1 Developmental System as the Basic Unit of Ecological Functioning;264
6.3.3.2;12.3.2 Epistemic Status of the Developmental Systems;265
6.3.3.3;12.3.3 Scale and Productivity;266
6.3.3.4;12.3.4 Epistemic Status of Complex Ecological Systems;267
6.3.3.5;12.3.5 Up-Scaling the Ecological Processes;273
6.3.4;12.4 Application to Ectomycorrhizae;274
6.3.4.1;12.4.1 Scales Relevant for EMF Developmental Systems;275
6.3.4.1.1;12.4.1.1 Structural Issues;275
6.3.4.1.1.1;Dimension and Turnover Rate of EMFs;275
6.3.4.1.1.2;ST Location of EM Fungi;278
6.3.4.1.1.3;Resources for Ectomycorrhizal Fungi and Their Space-Time Location;281
6.3.4.1.1.4;Organisms Using Resources and Services Provided by EMF;282
6.3.4.1.1.5;External Control Factors;283
6.3.4.1.1.6;The Homomorphic Model for Up-Scaling;284
6.3.4.1.2;12.4.1.2 Functional Issues;285
6.3.4.1.2.1;Stratification;285
6.3.4.1.2.2;Scale-Specific Mechanisms of EMF Productivity;285
6.3.5;12.5 Disturbance and Succession of Ectomycorrhizal Systems;289
6.3.5.1;12.5.1 Role of EMF in the Functioning of the Natural Capital;291
6.3.5.2;12.5.2 Mathematical Modeling;293
6.3.6;12.6 Research Directions;293
6.3.7;12.7 Conclusions;296
6.3.8;References;296
6.4;Chapter 13: Mycobioindication of Stress in Forest Ecosystems;305
6.4.1;13.1 Introduction;305
6.4.2;13.2 Impact of Stress Factors on Mycorrhiza;306
6.4.2.1;13.2.1 Acid Deposition;306
6.4.2.2;13.2.2 Nitrogen Deposition and Fertilization;306
6.4.2.3;13.2.3 Metal Deposition;307
6.4.2.4;13.2.4 Ozone;308
6.4.2.5;13.2.5 Elevated CO2;309
6.4.2.6;13.2.6 Drought;309
6.4.3;13.3 Mycobioindication in Forest Ecosystems;310
6.4.3.1;13.3.1 Ecological Indicators and Passive Monitors of Stress in a Forest Ecosystem;313
6.4.3.1.1;13.3.1.1 Responsive In Situ Mycoindicators;313
6.4.3.1.2;13.3.1.2 Accumulative In Situ Passive Monitors;316
6.4.3.1.3;13.3.1.3 Conclusions on Indicators and Passive Monitors;317
6.4.3.2;13.3.2 Active Monitors of Stress in Forest Ecosystems;318
6.4.3.2.1;13.3.2.1 Active monitors: In Situ Exposed Nonmycorrhizal Seedlings;318
6.4.3.2.2;13.3.2.2 Ex Situ Testers: Mycorrhizal Inoculum Potential of Differently Polluted Soil Substrates;318
6.4.3.2.3;13.3.2.3 Conclusions on Active Indicators in Mycoindication;320
6.4.4;13.4 Final remarks;320
6.4.5;References;321
6.5;Chapter 14: Effects of Pesticides on the Growth of Ectomycorrhizal Fungi and Ectomycorrhiza Formation;327
6.5.1;14.1 Introduction;327
6.5.2;14.2 Forest Tree Mycorrhization;328
6.5.2.1;14.2.1 Controlled Mycorrhization;328
6.5.3;14.3 Pesticides;329
6.5.3.1;14.3.1 Classification of Pesticides;330
6.5.3.2;14.3.2 Effects of Pesticides on Soil Microorganisms;330
6.5.3.3;14.3.3 Pesticide Persistence in the Soil;331
6.5.4;14.4 Pesticides and EMF;333
6.5.4.1;14.4.1 Fungicides;338
6.5.4.2;14.4.2 Herbicides;339
6.5.4.3;14.4.3 Insecticides and Other Pesticides;341
6.5.5;14.5 Pesticides and Lactarius spp.;341
6.5.5.1;14.5.1 Fungicides;341
6.5.5.2;14.5.2 Herbicides;344
6.5.6;14.6 Conclusions;344
6.5.7;References;345
6.6;Chapter 15: Metal-Chelating Agents from Ectomycorrhizal Fungi and Their Biotechnological Potential;351
6.6.1;15.1 Introduction;351
6.6.2;15.2 Specific Metal-Chelating Agents: Siderophores;352
6.6.3;15.3 Non-specific Metal-Chelating Agents: Low Molecular Weight Organic Acids;359
6.6.4;15.4 Other Metal-Chelating Agents: Thiol-Peptides;363
6.6.5;15.5 Biotechnological Potential of ECM Fungi Producing Metal-Chelating Agents;365
6.6.6;15.6 Conclusions;367
6.6.7;References;368
6.7;Chapter 16: Ectomycorrhiza and Secondary Metabolites;374
6.7.1;16.1 Introduction;374
6.7.2;16.2 Flavonoids;377
6.7.3;16.3 Terpenes;378
6.7.4;16.4 Plant Growth Regulating Substances (phytohormones);379
6.7.4.1;16.4.1 Auxins;380
6.7.4.2;16.4.2 Cytokinins;381
6.7.4.3;16.4.3 Gibberellins (GAs);382
6.7.4.4;16.4.4 Ethylene;383
6.7.4.5;16.4.5 Abscisic Acid;383
6.7.5;16.5 Sterols;383
6.7.6;16.6 Conclusions and Future Perspectives;384
6.7.7;References;385
6.8;Chapter 17: C:N Interactions and the Cost:Benefit Balance in Ectomycorrhizae;389
6.8.1;17.1 Introduction;389
6.8.2;17.2 Nitrogen;390
6.8.2.1;17.2.1 N Assimilation, Transport, and Transference to the Plant;392
6.8.3;17.3 Carbon;393
6.8.3.1;17.3.1 C Transfer and Use by the Fungus;394
6.8.4;17.4 C-N Interactions;394
6.8.5;17.5 Cost/Benefit and the Symbiotic Continuum;396
6.8.6;17.6 Conclusions;400
6.8.7;References;400
6.9;Chapter 18: Ectomycorrhizal Interaction Between Cantharellus and Dendrocalamus;406
6.9.1;18.1 Introduction;406
6.9.2;18.2 Ectomycorrhiza Formation and Growth Response on Host Plant;408
6.9.2.1;18.2.1 Growth in Culture;408
6.9.2.2;18.2.2 Simplified Technique of Ectomycorrhizal Synthesis;408
6.9.2.3;18.2.3 Ectomycorrhizal Interaction;411
6.9.2.4;18.2.4 Mass Multiplication of Inoculum;413
6.9.2.5;18.2.5 Growth Response of Host Seedlings;415
6.9.3;18.3 Ecological Studies;416
6.9.3.1;18.3.1 General Ecology;416
6.9.3.2;18.3.2 Antagonistic Interactions with Rhizosphere Fungi;417
6.9.3.3;18.3.3 Acid Phosphatase Production;419
6.9.3.4;18.3.4 Activity of Acid Phosphatase;421
6.9.4;18.4 Conclusion;422
6.9.5;References;424
6.10;Chapter 19: Edible Ectomycorrhizal Fungi: Cultivation, Conservation and Challenges;430
6.10.1;19.1 Introduction;430
6.10.2;19.2 Occurrence;431
6.10.3;19.3 Role of Ectomycorrhizas;432
6.10.4;19.4 Mycorrhizal Mushrooms;432
6.10.5;19.5 Production and Forest Management;435
6.10.5.1;19.5.1 Ectomycorrhizal Mushrooms and Wildlife Association;436
6.10.6;19.6 Cultivation of Edible Mycorrhizal Mushrooms;436
6.10.6.1;19.6.1 Truffles;437
6.10.6.2;19.6.2 Russula;438
6.10.6.3;19.6.3 Cantharellus;439
6.10.6.4;19.6.4 Boletus;439
6.10.6.5;19.6.5 Cultivation of Other Species;440
6.10.7;19.7 Conservation;441
6.10.7.1;19.7.1 Challenges Ahead;442
6.10.8;19.8 Conclusions;443
6.10.9;References;444
7;Index;455