Rai / Varma Mycotoxins in Food, Feed and Bioweapons

1. Auflage 2009
ISBN: 978-3-642-00725-5
Verlag: Springer
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: Wasserzeichen (»Systemvoraussetzungen)

E-Book, Englisch, 405 Seiten

Mycotoxins are made by different biosynthetic pathways, and they have an extremely wide range of pharmacological effects. This book will update readers on several cutting-edge aspects of mycotoxin research, including topics such as: new analytical methods for detection; the adoption of an ancient Mexican process for detoxification of aflatoxins; mycotoxin management in Ireland, Lithuania and South America; mycotoxin reduction through plant breeding and integrated management practices; and natural aflatoxin inhibitors from medicinal plants. Further contributions examine ochratoxins, selected trichothecenes, zearalenone, and aflatoxin-like gene clusters, as well as sclerotial development in Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus. Of particular interest are the chapters on the potential use of mycotoxins as bioweapons. This book will stimulate new thinking on the need to develop therapeutic as well as preventative interventions to reduce the toxicological threat of mycotoxins.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Rai, Mahendra

Varma, Ajit

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;161309_1_En_FM1_OnlinePDF;1
2;161309_1_En_1_Part_OnlinePDF;17
2.1;Chapter : ;17
3;161309_1_En_1_Chapter_OnlinePDF;18
3.1;Chapter 1: Artificial Systems for Molecular Recognition of Mycotoxins;18
3.1.1;Introduction;18
3.1.2;Molecularly Imprinted Polymers;19
3.1.2.1;Molecular Imprinted Solid-Phase Extraction;20
3.1.2.2;Imprinted Materials for Mycotoxin Analysis;22
3.1.2.2.1;Ochratoxin AOchratoxin A;23
3.1.2.2.2;ZearalenoneZearalenone;25
3.1.2.2.3;MoniliforminMoniliformin;27
3.1.2.2.4;DeoxynivalenolDeoxynivalenol;28
3.1.3;Combinatorial Peptides;28
3.1.3.1;Combinatorial PeptidesCombinatorial peptides for Mycotoxins;29
3.1.3.1.1;AflatoxinsAflatoxins;29
3.1.3.1.2;Ochratoxin AOchratoxin A;31
3.1.4;Conclusions;32
3.1.5;References;33
4;161309_1_En_2_Chapter_OnlinePDF;36
4.1;Chapter Chapter 2: Molecular Mechanism of Detection of Aflatoxins and Other Mycotoxins;36
4.1.1;Introduction;36
4.1.2;Detection of Aflatoxigenic Fungi;36
4.1.3;Examination of Fungal Colonies under UV Light;38
4.1.4;Detection of Aflatoxins in Corn Kernels Contaminated with Aflatoxigenic Fungi;40
4.1.5;Detection of Mycotoxigenic Fungi by Polymerase Chain ReactionPolymerase Chain Reaction;40
4.1.5.1;AflatoxinsAflatoxins;40
4.1.5.2;Other Mycotoxins;41
4.1.6;Detection and Determination of Mycotoxins in the Analytical Laboratory;42
4.1.6.1;High Performance Liquid ChromatographyHigh Performance Liquid Chromatography;42
4.1.6.2;HPLC-Mass SpectrometryHPLC-Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS) and HPLC-Tandem Mass SpectrometryHPLC-Tandem Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS-MS);42
4.1.6.3;Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay KitsELISA Kits;43
4.1.6.4;Lateral Flow ImmunochromatographyLateral Flow Immunochromatography;44
4.1.7;New BiosensorsBiosensors;46
4.1.7.1;Surface Plasmon ResonanceSPR;46
4.1.7.2;Fluorescent PolarizationFluorescent Polarization Immunoassay;46
4.1.7.3;Molecular ImprintingMolecular Imprinting;47
4.1.7.4;Arrays of BiosensorsArrays of Biosensors;47
4.1.7.5;Electronic NosesElectronic Noses;47
4.1.7.6;Straight from the Baker's Oven: Solid State SsDNA Odor SensorsSolid State Ssdna Odor Sensors;48
4.1.8;Conclusion;48
4.1.9;References;48
4.1.10;Online Resources;52
5;161309_1_En_3_Chapter_OnlinePDF;53
5.1;Chapter 3: The Destruction of Aflatoxins in Corn by ``Nixtamalización´´;53
5.1.1;Introduction;53
5.1.2;The Process of ``NixtamalizaciónNixtamalización´´;54
5.1.2.1;Facts about the LimeLimeLime;55
5.1.2.2;Chemical Changes in Maize MaizeMaizeMaizeMaizeduring ``NixtamalizaciónNixtamalización´´;55
5.1.2.3;Physical Changes in MaizeMaize During ``NixtamalizaciónNixtamalización´´;56
5.1.2.4;TypesTypes of ``NixtamalizaciónNixtamalización´´;56
5.1.3;Nixtamalización and Aflatoxins;57
5.1.3.1;Nixtamalización and RadiolabelRadiolabel Aflatoxins;58
5.1.4;DisadvantagesDisadvantages of Traditional NixtamalizaciónNixtamalización;60
5.1.5;Future Perspectives;61
5.1.6;Conclusions;61
5.1.7;References;62
6;161309_1_En_4_Chapter_OnlinePDF;64
6.1;Chapter Chapter 4: Mycotoxigenic Fungi on Baled Grass Silage in Ireland;64
6.1.1;Introduction;64
6.1.2;How Do Fungi Infect Baled Silage?;65
6.1.3;Significance of Fungi on Silage;65
6.1.4;Mycotoxigenic FungiMycotoxigenic fungi Occurring on Baled Grass Silage in Ireland;65
6.1.5;P. roqueforti and P. paneum TaxonomyMycotoxigenic fungiPenicillium roqueforti and P. paneum taxonomy;67
6.1.6;Physiology of P. roqueforti and P. paneumMycotoxigenic fungiPhysiology of Penicillium roqueforti and P. paneum;67
6.1.7;Mycotoxins Produced by P. roqueforti and P. paneumMycotoxigenic fungiMycotoxins produced by Penicillium roqueforti and P. pane;69
6.1.7.1;PatulinMycotoxigenic fungiPatulin;69
6.1.7.2;PR ToxinMycotoxigenic fungiPR toxin;70
6.1.7.3;RoquefortineMycotoxigenic fungiRoquefortine;70
6.1.7.4;Mycophenolic acidMycotoxigenic fungiMycophenolic acid;71
6.1.8;Conclusions;72
6.1.9;References;72
7;161309_1_En_5_Chapter_OnlinePDF;77
7.1;Chapter Chapter 5: Aflatoxin-like Gene Clusters and How They Evolved;77
7.1.1;Polyketide Biosynthesis Overview;77
7.1.2;AspergillusAspergillus Genomics;78
7.1.3;AF-Like Gene Clustergene clusters in Species Incapable of AF Production;80
7.1.4;Clusters in Species that Make B and G AFs Compared to Those that Produce Only B AFs;80
7.1.5;Origin of Genes in Secondary Metabolite Clusters;81
7.1.6;Why are Gene Clusters Maintained?;82
7.1.7;References;84
8;161309_1_En_6_Chapter_OnlinePDF;88
8.1;Chapter Chapter 6: Aflatoxin Biosynthesis and Sclerotial Development in Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus;88
8.1.1;Introduction;88
8.1.2;Aflatoxin Biosynthesis Gene Cluster;89
8.1.3;Instability of Aflatoxin Gene Cluster in A. flavus;90
8.1.4;Transcriptional Regulation of Aflatoxin Biosynthesis;90
8.1.4.1;The aflR and aflJ Genes;90
8.1.4.2;G-Protein Signaling Pathway and PkaA;92
8.1.4.3;Calcium Signaling Pathway;93
8.1.4.4;The laeA Gene;94
8.1.4.5;The veA Gene;94
8.1.5;Oxidative Stress and Aflatoxin Production;95
8.1.6;Sclerotial Production by A. flavus and A. parasiticus;96
8.1.6.1;Sclerotial Morphogenesis;96
8.1.6.2;A. flavus Sclerotial Morphotypes;96
8.1.6.3;Secondary Metabolites in Aspergillus sclerotia;96
8.1.6.4;Nutritional Effects;97
8.1.6.5;Light as a Major Determinant;98
8.1.7;Oxidative Stress and Sclerotial Biogenesis;98
8.1.8;References;99
9;161309_1_En_7_Chapter_OnlinePDF;104
9.1;Chapter 7: Interaction Between Aflatoxin B1 and Other Risk Factors in Hepatocarcinogenesis;104
9.1.1;Introduction;104
9.1.2;Synergistic Hepatocarcinogenic Interaction Between Chronic Hepatitis B Virus Infection and Aflatoxin B1 Exposure;105
9.1.2.1;Possible Mechanisms of Interaction between Aflatoxin B1 and Hepatitis B Virushepatitis B virus in Hepatocarcinogenesis;108
9.1.3;Interaction Between Aflatoxin B1 and Chronic Hepatitis C Virushepatitis C virus Infection in Hepatocarcinogenesishepatocarcin;109
9.1.4;Synergistic Interaction Between Aflatoxin B1 and Dietary Iron Overload in Hepatic Mutaginesis;110
9.1.4.1;Possible Mechanisms of Interaction Between Aflatoxin B1 and Iron Overload in Hepatocarcinogenesis;113
9.1.5;CirrhosisCirrhosis as a Possible Tumour Promoter for Aflatoxin B1-Induced Hepatocarcinogenesis;113
9.1.6;AlcoholAlcohol as a Possible Tumour Promoter in Aflatoxin B1-Induced Hepatocarcinogenesishepatocarcinogenesis;113
9.1.7;Interaction Between Aflatoxin B1and Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in Hepatocarcinogenesishepatocarcinogenesis;116
9.1.8;References;116
10;161309_1_En_8_Chapter_OnlinePDF;123
10.1;Chapter 8: Zearalenone and its Derivatives: Known Toxins in New Aspects ;123
10.1.1;Introduction;123
10.1.2;Chemical StructureZearalenoneChemical structure, PropertiesZearalenoneProperties and DerivativesZearalenoneDerivatives of Zear;125
10.1.3;OccurrenceZearalenoneOccurrence of Zearalenone in Foods and Feeds;126
10.1.4;GuidelinesZearalenoneGuidelines;127
10.1.5;Toxic EffectsZearalenoneToxic effects on Animals of Experimental Feeds Contaminated with ZON and Natural Occurrence of the Tox;128
10.1.6;Methods of ZON DetoxicationZearalenoneDetoxication;132
10.1.7;Conclusion;134
10.1.8;References;135
11;161309_1_En_9_Chapter_OnlinePDF;140
11.1;Chapter 9: Zearalenone: Undesirable Substance ;140
11.1.1;Introduction;140
11.1.2;Moulds and Their Products;141
11.1.3;PhytoestrogensPhytoestrogens;142
11.1.4;Zearalenone;143
11.1.4.1;Zearalenone Absorption;144
11.1.4.2;Zearalenone Biotransformation;145
11.1.4.3;Zearalenone Hormonal Properties;147
11.1.5;Environmental Estrogens;147
11.1.6;Cooperation of the Immunological System with Steroid Hormones;148
11.1.7;Conclusion;150
11.1.8;References;150
12;161309_1_En_2_Part_OnlinePDF;154
12.1;Chapter : ;154
13;161309_1_En_10_Chapter_OnlinePDF;155
14;161309_1_En_11_Chapter_OnlinePDF;171
14.1;Chapter 11: Control of Mycotoxin Contamination in Cereals by Breeding ;171
14.1.1;Introduction;171
14.1.2;Legal Toxin Regulations and Their Consequences;172
14.1.3;Resistance to Disease and Toxin;173
14.1.4;Resistance and Toxin Relation in the Wheat Fusarium Head Blight Syndrome;174
14.1.5;Resistance and Toxin Resistance Relations Against Aspergillus flavus and Fusarium Ear Blight in Maize;178
14.1.6;Conclusions and Outlook;180
14.1.7;References;181
15;161309_1_En_12_Chapter_OnlinePDF;186
15.1;Chapter 12: Fusarium and Fumonisins in Maize in South America;186
15.1.1;Introduction;186
15.1.2;Fumonisin Producers Fusarium SpeciesFumonisinsproducers Fusarium species;187
15.1.3;Fumonisin BiosynthesisFumonisinsbiosynthesis;189
15.1.4;Ecophysiology of Fungal Species;189
15.1.5;Occurrence of FumonisinsFumonisinsOccurrence of;192
15.1.6;Stability of Fumonisin During ProcessingFumonisinsstability during processing;194
15.1.6.1;Sorting and Cleaning;194
15.1.6.2;Milling;195
15.1.6.3;Brewing;195
15.1.6.4;Thermal Processing and Extrusion;195
15.1.6.5;CornCornVéase maize Flake Process;196
15.1.7;Methods of Detection of FumonisinsFumonisinsmethods of detection;196
15.1.8;Biological EffectFumonisinsbiological effect;196
15.1.9;Control of Fumonisin ProductionFumonisinprevention and control;198
15.1.10;Regulations for FumonisinsFumonisinsRegulations;200
15.1.11;Conclusions and Future Perspectives;200
15.1.12;References;200
16;161309_1_En_13_Chapter_OnlinePDF;208
16.1;Chapter 13: Prevention and Management of Mycotoxins in Food and Feed ;208
16.1.1;Introduction;208
16.1.2;Prevention of Mycotoxin Contamination;208
16.1.2.1;Pre-Harvest Management;209
16.1.2.1.1;Environmental Conditions;209
16.1.2.1.2;Resistant Varieties;209
16.1.2.1.3;Field Management;210
16.1.2.1.4;Use of Chemical and Biological Agents;211
16.1.2.2;Harvest Management;211
16.1.2.3;Post-Harvest Management;211
16.1.2.3.1;Improving of Drying and Storage Conditions;211
16.1.2.3.2;Use of Chemical and Natural Agents;212
16.1.2.3.3;Irradiation;212
16.1.3;Decontamination/Detoxification of Mycotoxins;213
16.1.3.1;Removal of Mycotoxins from Contaminated Commodities;213
16.1.3.1.1;Physical Separation;213
16.1.3.1.1.1;Cleaning;213
16.1.3.1.1.2;Sorting and Segregation;214
16.1.3.1.1.3;Washing;214
16.1.3.1.1.4;Milling;215
16.1.3.1.2;Extraction with Solvents;215
16.1.3.1.3;Adsorption;215
16.1.4;Inactivation of Mycotoxins in Contaminated Commodities;216
16.1.4.1;Physical Methods;216
16.1.4.1.1;Thermal Treatment;216
16.1.4.1.2;IrradiationIrradiation;216
16.1.4.2;Chemical Methods;216
16.1.4.2.1;Acid TreatmentAcid-treatment;219
16.1.4.2.2;Treatment with Bases;219
16.1.4.2.3;Oxidizing Agents;219
16.1.4.2.4;Reducing Agents;220
16.1.4.2.5;Chlorinating Agents;220
16.1.4.2.6;Other Chemicals;220
16.1.4.3;Biological Methods;221
16.1.5;Inhibition of Mycotoxin Absorption in the Gastrointestinal Tract;222
16.1.5.1;Activated Carbon;222
16.1.5.2;Hydrated Sodium Calcium AluminosilicateHydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate (HSCAS);222
16.1.5.3;ZeolitesZeolites;225
16.1.5.4;Bentonite;225
16.1.5.5;Cholestyramine;226
16.1.5.6;Yeast and Yeast-Derived Products;226
16.1.5.7;Probiotic BacteriaProbiotic bacteria;226
16.1.6;Conclusions;227
16.1.7;References;227
17;161309_1_En_14_Chapter_OnlinePDF;235
17.1;Chapter 14: Mycotoxigenic Fungi and Mycotoxins in Animal Feed in South American Countries;235
17.1.1;Introduction;235
17.1.2;Occurrence of Toxigenic Fungal Species and Mycotoxins in Raw Materials and Feedstuffs;236
17.1.2.1;Silage and Ready Dairy Cattle Feed;236
17.1.2.1.1;Mycoflora and Mycotoxin Incidence;237
17.1.2.2;Poultry, Pig, Rabbit and Equine Feed;245
17.1.2.2.1;Mycoflora Incidence;245
17.1.2.2.2;Toxigenic Ability of Potential Mycotoxin Producer;247
17.1.2.2.3;Mycotoxin IncidenceMycotoxin incidence;248
17.1.2.3;Ready Pet Food;250
17.1.2.3.1;Mycoflora IncidenceMycoflora incidence;250
17.1.2.3.2;Toxigenic Ability;250
17.1.2.3.3;Mycotoxin IncidenceMycotoxin incidence;251
17.1.3;Conclusions and Future Perspectives;251
17.1.4;References;253
18;161309_1_En_3_Part_OnlinePDF;257
18.1;Chapter : ;257
19;161309_1_En_15_Chapter_OnlinePDF;258
19.1;Chapter 15: Nivalenol: The Mycology, Occurrence, Toxicology, Analysis and Regulation;258
19.1.1;Introduction;258
19.1.2;MycologyMycology;259
19.1.3;Occurrence;262
19.1.3.1;Distribution of NIV Contamination;262
19.1.3.2;Occurrence of NIV in Japan;264
19.1.4;Toxicology;265
19.1.4.1;Acute Toxicity;265
19.1.4.2;Chronic Toxicity;266
19.1.4.3;Immunotoxicity;267
19.1.4.4;Carcinogenesis;270
19.1.5;Analysis;270
19.1.5.1;Detection Methods for Trichothecenes Including NIV;270
19.1.5.1.1;LC-MS Analytical Method for the Determination of Trichothecenes;271
19.1.6;Regulation;273
19.1.7;Conclusion;273
19.1.8;References;275
20;161309_1_En_16_Chapter_OnlinePDF;279
20.1;Chapter 16: Yeast Killer Toxins Technology Transfer;279
20.1.1;Introduction;279
20.1.2;Microbial Biotyping by the Yeast Killer System;280
20.1.3;Industrial and Biotechnological Applications of the Yeast Killer System;283
20.1.4;Yeast Killer System Applications in Biomedicine;285
20.1.4.1;Killer Toxins as Potential Antimicrobial Agentsantimicrobial agents;285
20.1.4.2;Yeast Killer Toxin-Neutralizing Antibodies and Idiotypic Vaccinationidiotypic vaccination;286
20.1.4.3;Antiidiotypic Monoclonal and Recombinant Antibiobodiesantibiobodies;287
20.1.4.4;Antibiobody-Derived Killer Peptideskiller peptides;288
20.1.5;Conclusions and Future Perspectives;289
20.1.6;References;291
21;161309_1_En_17_Chapter_OnlinePDF;295
21.1;Chapter Chapter 17: Trichothecenes as Toxin and Bioweapons: Prevention and Control;295
21.1.1;Introduction;295
21.1.2;Incidence in Agriculture;296
21.1.3;Type of TrichothecenesType of trichothecenes;296
21.1.4;Chemical Nature of Trichothecenes;297
21.1.4.1;T-2 Toxin;297
21.1.4.2;HT-2 toxinHT-2 toxin;297
21.1.4.3;DONDeoxynivalenol;298
21.1.4.4;NivalenolNivalenol;298
21.1.5;In Vitro Production of T-2 Toxinproduction of T-2 toxin;298
21.1.6;Detection of TrichothecenesDetection of Trichothecenes;300
21.1.7;ToxicityToxicity of T-2 Toxin;301
21.1.8;Role of Trichothecenes in War;302
21.1.9;Mode of ActionMode of Action of T-2 and HT-2 Toxin;303
21.1.9.1;Effects on DNA and RNA Synthesis;303
21.1.9.2;Effects on Protein SynthesisProtein Synthesis;304
21.1.9.3;Effects on Membranes and Lipid Peroxidationlipid peroxidation;304
21.1.9.4;Effect on Nutrients;304
21.1.9.5;Alterations of Cellular Membranes;304
21.1.9.6;ApoptosisApoptosis of Human Lymphocytes In Vitro;305
21.1.10;Prevention and ControlPrevention and control of Trichothecenes;305
21.1.10.1;Prevention of Mold Growth;305
21.1.10.1.1;Drying and Cooking of Grains;305
21.1.10.1.2;Controlled Atmosphere Storage;306
21.1.10.1.3;Chemical Treatment;306
21.1.11;Conclusion and Future Directions;306
21.1.12;References;307
22;161309_1_En_18_Chapter_OnlinePDF;310
22.1;Chapter Chapter 18: Risk Assessment of Ochratoxin A (OTA);310
22.1.1;Introduction;310
22.1.2;Toxicological Assessment of OTA;311
22.1.2.1;Acute Toxicity;311
22.1.2.2;Short-term to 90-Day Studies;312
22.1.2.3;Long-term Studies on Toxicity and Carcinogenicity;312
22.1.2.4;Genotoxicity, Cytotoxicity and Epigenesis;313
22.1.2.5;Teratogenicity;314
22.1.2.6;Immunotoxicity;315
22.1.2.7;Nephrotoxicity;315
22.1.3;Toxic Effects of OTA on Farm Livestock;316
22.1.4;Toxic Effects of OTA in Humans;317
22.1.5;Endpoint of OTA Hazard Characterization - Provisional Tolerable Daily Intake;318
22.1.6;Exposure Assessment of Animal and Human to OTA;319
22.1.6.1;OTA Occurrence in Feed and its Intake by Farm Livestock;320
22.1.6.2;OTA Occurrence in Food and Human Dietary Exposure;321
22.1.7;Risk Characterisation;323
22.1.8;Conclusions;324
22.1.9;References;324
23;161309_1_En_19_Chapter_OnlinePDF;332
24;161309_1_En_20_Chapter_OnlinePDF;356
24.1;Chapter Chapter 20: The Myco-Agents of Bioterrorism;356
24.1.1;Introduction;356
24.1.2;History;356
24.1.3;Mycotoxins;357
24.1.4;Trichothecenes;357
24.1.5;Aflatoxins;360
24.1.6;Ochratoxin A;362
24.1.7;Ergotism;364
24.1.8;Conclusion;366
24.1.9;References;366
25;161309_1_En_21_Chapter_OnlinePDF;369
25.1;Chapter Chapter 21: The Weaponisation of Mycotoxins;369
25.1.1;Introduction;369
25.1.2;Fungal Toxins and Metabolites as Weapons;372
25.1.2.1;Fungal Toxins;373
25.1.2.1.1;a-Aminitin;375
25.1.2.1.2;Aflatoxins;375
25.1.2.1.3;T-2 Toxin;375
25.1.3;An Example;376
25.1.4;Water as a Vector;376
25.1.5;Fungal Biological Control Agents;377
25.1.6;Taxonomy;378
25.1.7;Genetically Modified FungiGenetically modified fungi (GMO);379
25.1.8;Security of Laboratories and Obtaining Pure Mycotoxins;379
25.1.9;Mycotoxicosis TreatmentMycotoxicosis treatment;381
25.1.10;Mycotoxin DecontaminationMycotoxin decontamination;381
25.1.11;Some Priorities;382
25.1.12;Future Trends;382
25.1.13;Conclusions;383
25.1.14;References;384
26;161309_1_En_BM2_OnlinePDF;400
26.1;: Index;400
27.1;Chapter Chapter 22: Masked Mycotoxins and Mycotoxin Derivatives in Food: The Hidden Menace;387
27.1.1;Introduction;387
27.1.2;Masked Mycotoxins and Mycotoxin Derivatives Arising from the Interactions of Moulds with Plants;388
27.1.2.1;Zearalenone;389
27.1.2.2;Deoxynivalenol;390
27.1.2.3;Ochratoxin A;391
27.1.3;Transformations of Mycotoxins During Food Processing;392
27.1.3.1;Fumonisins;392
27.1.3.2;Trichothecenes;394
27.1.4;Toxicity of Mycotoxin Derivatives;395
27.1.5;Conclusions;396
27.1.6;References;397