Ramamurthy / Bhattacharya Epidemiological and Molecular Aspects on Cholera

1. Auflage 2010
ISBN: 978-1-60327-265-0
Verlag: Springer-Verlag
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: Adobe DRM (»Systemvoraussetzungen)

E-Book, Englisch, 372 Seiten

Though cholera is an ancient disease, its perennial occurrence in several parts of the world has attracted many researches to find ways and means to combat the disease. The prevailing seventh pandemic cholera is dominating since 1961, but the dimension of the disease has taken several silhouettes, as the genetic structure and functions of the Vibrio cholerae has changed to a great extent. Several recent studies have shown that transformation of the pathogen at the molecular level has ameliorated several cholera outbreaks and epidemics of with successive new clones of V. cholerae. This comprehensive compilation, written by eminent international researchers reviews the epidemiology of cholera in Africa, Asia, Russia and Latin Americas. The other chapters contributed by acclaimed authors cover various aspects on evolution, polysaccaharide biosynthesis, SXT element, integrons, small molecule signalling systems, flagellar synthesis, filamentous phages, pathogenic role of proteases and hemolysin, and other putative virulence factors. In addition, ecology of V. cholerae and management of cholera were also discussed in detail. This book will be good source of information to all researchers with interests in infectious diseases, microbiology and molecular biology.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Ramamurthy, T.

Bhattacharya, S.K.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Preface;5
2;Contents;7
3;Contributors;9
4;1 General Introduction;12
5;2 Asiatic Cholera: Mole Hills and Mountains;16
5.1;2.1 Introduction;16
5.2;2.2 Cholera in the Indian Subcontinent;17
5.3;2.3 Other Asian Countries;19
5.4;2.4 Association Between V. cholerae and Parasites;20
5.5;2.5 The O139 Cholera;20
5.6;2.6 Antimicrobial Resistance;22
5.7;2.7 Phage Typing of V. cholerae O1 and O139;23
5.8;2.8 Molecular Epidemiology;24
5.9;2.9 Seroepidemiology;27
5.10;2.10 Prospects of Cholera Vaccines in Asia;28
5.11;2.11 Traditional Medicine and Food Habits for Prevention of Cholera;29
5.12;2.12 Control Measures and Health-Care Systems;29
5.13;2.13 Conclusion;31
5.14;References;31
6;3 Endemic and Epidemic Cholera in Africa;41
6.1;3.1 Introduction;41
6.2;3.2 Epidemics and Outbreaks;42
6.3;3.3 Risk Factors and Modes of Transmission of Cholera;44
6.4;3.4 The Organism;49
6.5;3.5 Seroepidemiology;50
6.6;3.6 Use of Antimicrobials;50
6.7;3.7 Molecular Findings;52
6.8;3.8 Strategies to Curtail Cholera Outbreaks;52
6.9;3.9 Conclusions;53
6.10;References;54
7;4 Phenotypic and Molecular Characteristics of Epidemic and Non-epidemic Vibrio cholerae Strains Isolated in Russia and Certain Countriesof Commonwealth of Independent States (CIS);61
7.1;4.1 Introduction;61
7.2;4.2 Toxigenic (CTX+) V. cholerae Strains;63
7.2.1;4.2.1 O1 Serogroup;63
7.2.1.1;4.2.1.1 Classical Strains;63
7.2.1.2;4.2.1.2 El Tor Strains;64
7.2.2;4.2.2 O139 Strains;68
7.2.3;4.2.3 CTX+ Non-O1, Non-O139 Strains;70
7.3;4.3 Non-choleragenic Strains;72
7.3.1;4.3.1 Pre-CTX+ O1 and Non-O1, Non-O139 Strains;72
7.3.2;4.3.2 CTX /Pre-CTX O1 Strains;73
7.3.3;4.3.3 CTX /Pre-CTX Non-O1, Non-O139 Strains;76
7.4;4.4 Environmental Strains: Harmless Refugees or Ambushing Bandits?;78
7.5;4.5 Conclusions;79
7.6;References;80
8;5 The Re-emergence of Cholera in the Americas;89
8.1;5.1 Introduction;89
8.2;5.2 Epidemiology of Cholera in Americas;90
8.3;5.3 The Environmental Aspects of Cholera;93
8.4;5.4 Management of Cholera and Other Related Diarrheal Infections;95
8.5;5.5 Molecular Characterization of V. cholerae;95
8.6;5.6 Vibrio cholerae Non-O1 Associated with Cholera-RelatedDiarrhea;101
8.7;References;102
9;6 The Evolution of Vibrio cholerae as a Pathogen;106
9.1;6.1 Introduction;106
9.2;6.2 Pathogenesis;107
9.3;6.3 Emergence of Endemic and Pandemic Vibrio cholerae;109
9.4;6.4 Horizontal Transfer of Vibrio cholerae Virulence Genes;110
9.5;6.5 Reactogenicity of Nontoxigenic Vaccine Prototypes in Humans;112
9.6;6.6 The Discovery of Zot and Ace;112
9.7;6.7 Other Toxins and Virulence Loci in the Evolution of Vibrio cholerae ;115
9.8;6.8 Conclusion;117
9.9;References;118
10;7 Molecular Epidemiology of Toxigenic Vibrio cholerae ;124
10.1;7.1 Introduction;124
10.2;7.2 Epidemiology of Cholera: Overview;126
10.3;7.3 Molecular Epidemiological Tools;126
10.4;7.4 Molecular Epidemiology of Cholera;127
10.4.1;7.4.1 Clonal Diversity of Epidemic Strains in Bangladesh and India;128
10.4.2;7.4.2 Changing Antibiotic Resistance Among Toxigenic Vibrio cholerae ;130
10.5;7.5 Molecular Basis for Clonal Diversity;131
10.6;7.6 Influence of Clonal Diversity on the Epidemiology of Cholera;132
10.7;References;133
11;8 Diversity and Genetic Basis of Polysaccharide Biosynthesis in Vibrio cholerae;137
11.1;8.1 Introduction;138
11.2;8.2 Lipopolysaccharide (LPS);139
11.2.1;8.2.1 Lipid A;139
11.2.1.1;8.2.1.1 Composition and Structure of Lipid A;139
11.2.1.2;8.2.1.2 Genetics of Lipid A Biosynthesis;140
11.2.2;8.2.2 Core Oligosaccharide;140
11.2.2.1;8.2.2.1 Composition and Structure of Core Oligosaccharide;140
11.2.2.2;8.2.2.2 Genetics of Core Biosynthesis;140
11.2.3;8.2.3 O-Polysaccharide (O-Antigen);141
11.2.3.1;8.2.3.1 Serogroup O1;142
11.2.3.2;8.2.3.2 Serogroup O139;145
11.2.3.3;8.2.3.3 Serogroup O22;147
11.2.3.4;8.2.3.4 Serogroup O37;149
11.2.3.5;8.2.3.5 Serogroup O31;150
11.3;8.3 Horizontal Gene Transfer (HGT) in Creation of O-Antigen Diversity;151
11.3.1;8.3.1 Mechanism of HGT-Evidence for Homologous Recombination Events;154
11.3.2;8.3.2 Vehicles for HGT of O-Antigen/Capsule Regions;154
11.4;8.4 Exopolysaccharide (EPS)/Vibrio Polysaccharide (VPS)/Rugose Polysaccharide;155
11.4.1;8.4.1 V. cholerae Generates Colonial Variants Termed Smooth and Rugose;155
11.4.2;8.4.2 The Rugose Variant Has an Increased Capacity to Survive Biocides and Environmental Stresses;156
11.4.3;8.4.3 The Rugose Variant Has Increased Capacity to Form Biofilms;156
11.4.4;8.4.4 EPS/VPS Production;156
11.4.5;8.4.5 VPS Biosynthesis and Analysis of the Functions of the vps Genes;157
11.4.6;8.4.6 VPS Cluster Is Unique to V. cholerae ;158
11.4.7;8.4.7 Regulators of VPS Production;158
11.4.8;8.4.8 Type II Secretion System in VPS Export;160
11.5;8.5 Concluding Remarks;161
11.6;References;162
12;9 Significance of the SXT/R391 Family of Integrating Conjugative Elements in Vibrio cholerae;169
12.1;9.1 Introduction;169
12.2;9.2 Discovery of SXTMO10 in a Novel Epidemic-CausingSerogroup of Vibrio cholerae;171
12.3;9.3 Apparent Dissemination of SXTMO10-Related ICEs inEpidemic Vibrio cholerae;172
12.4;9.4 The Origin of SXTMO10-Related ICEs;177
12.5;9.5 SXT/R391 Family Members Possess a Large Core Set of Conserved Genes;178
12.6;9.6 SXT/R391 Family Members Also Possess Variable Regions;179
12.7;9.7 Conjugative Transfer and Regulation of the ICEs of the SXT/R391 Family;180
12.7.1;9.7.1 Excision and Integration;180
12.7.2;9.7.2 Conjugative Transfer;181
12.7.3;9.7.3 Conjugative Transfer Entry Exclusion;182
12.7.4;9.7.4 Regulation;183
12.8;9.8 Do ICEs of the SXT/R391 Family Mobilize Vibrio cholerae Virulence Determinants?;184
12.9;9.9 Concluding Remarks;187
12.10;References;188
13;10 Small Molecule Signaling Systemsin Vibrio cholerae;193
13.1;10.1 Introduction;194
13.2;10.2 Intracellular Small Molecule Signaling Systems;194
13.2.1;10.2.1 Intracellular cAMP-Mediated Regulation in Vibrio cholerae;195
13.2.2;10.2.2 Guanosine 3'-Diphosphate 5'-Triphosphateand Guanosine 3',5'-Bis(diphosphate) [(p)ppGpp]as Cellular Alarmones in Vibrio cholerae;196
13.2.2.1;10.2.2.1 Role of (p)ppGpp in Vibrio cholerae ;197
13.2.3;10.2.3 Bis-(3,5)-cyclic-di-guanosine Monophosphate (c-di-GMP);198
13.2.3.1;10.2.3.1 c-di-GMP-Mediated Signaling in Vibrio cholerae ;198
13.2.3.2;10.2.3.2 c-di-GMP and In Vivo Gene Expression in Vibrio cholerae ;200
13.3;10.3 Extracellular Quorum Sensing in Vibrio cholerae ;203
13.3.1;10.3.1 Quorum-Sensing Molecules and Pathways in Vibrio cholerae ;203
13.3.2;10.3.2 Quorum Sensing-Regulated Virulence Gene Expression and Biofilm Formation in Vibrio cholerae;204
13.3.3;10.3.3 Relationship Between Quorum Sensing and c-di-GMP in Vibrio cholerae ;205
13.4;10.4 Concluding Remarks;205
13.5;References;206
14;11 Vibrio cholerae Flagellar Synthesisand Virulence;210
14.1;11.1 Introduction;210
14.2;11.2 The Vibrio cholerae Flagellar Transcription Hierarchy;211
14.3;11.3 Motility and Virulence;214
14.4;11.4 Chemotaxis and Virulence;215
14.5;11.5 Motility and Biofilm Formation;216
14.6;11.6 Summary;216
14.7;References;217
15;12 Filamentous Phages of Vibrio choleraeO1 and O139;220
15.1;12.1 Introduction;220
15.2;12.2 Isolation of Filamentous Phages from Stool Samples;221
15.3;12.3 Typing and Subtyping of Filamentous Phages;221
15.4;12.4 Filamentous Phages as a Tool for Molecular Epidemiology of V. cholerae;221
15.5;12.5 Receptor for Filamentous Phages fs1 and fs2;222
15.6;12.6 Role of Filamentous Phages in Pathogenesis of V. cholerae;222
15.7;12.7 Genomic Organization of fs2;223
15.8;12.8 att Site-Containing Region of fs2;224
15.9;12.9 Strategies for Development of an Effective Cholera Vaccine Phase Variation of V. cholerae;224
15.10;12.10 Development of Hyperfimbriate Strains of V. cholerae O1;226
15.11;References;227
16;13 Pathogenic Potential of Non-O1, Non-O139 Vibrio cholerae;229
16.1;13.1 Introduction;229
16.2;13.2 Ecology and Epidemiology;230
16.3;13.3 Strain Diversity;231
16.4;13.4 Toxins and Toxigenic Factors;232
16.5;13.5 CTX Prophage (Genetic Element) and VPI;234
16.6;13.6 Pathogenic Potential;235
16.7;13.7 Evolutionary Perspective;237
16.8;13.8 Conclusion;240
16.9;References;241
17;14 Proteases Produced by Vibrio choleraeand Other Pathogenic Vibrios:Pathogenic Roles and Expression;250
17.1;14.1 Introduction;251
17.2;14.2 Vibrio cholerae Protease;251
17.2.1;14.2.1 Hemagglutinin/Protease (HA/P);251
17.2.2;14.2.2 Quorum-Sensing Regulation of HA/P Production;254
17.2.3;14.2.3 Other Proteases of Vibrio cholerae;256
17.3;14.3 Proteases Produced by Other Vibrios;256
17.3.1;14.3.1 Vibrio vulnificus Protease (VVP);256
17.3.2;14.3.2 Vibrio parahaemolyticus and Others;257
17.4;14.4 Conclusions;258
17.5;References;259
18;15 Toxins of Vibrio choleraeand Their Role in Inflammation,Pathogenesis, and Immunomodulation;264
18.1;15.1 Introduction;264
18.2;15.2 Cholera Enterotoxin;266
18.2.1;15.2.1 Immune Modulation by Cholera Toxin;267
18.2.1.1;15.2.1.1 B and T Cells;268
18.2.1.2;15.2.1.2 Monocytes and Macrophages;268
18.2.1.3;15.2.1.3 Dendritic Cells;268
18.3;15.3 The Other Toxins of Vibrio cholerae;269
18.3.1;15.3.1 Zona Occludens Toxin (Zot);269
18.3.2;15.3.2 Accessory Cholera Enterotoxin (Ace);269
18.3.3;15.3.3 WO7 Toxin;269
18.3.4;15.3.4 Hemolysin--Cytolysin;270
18.3.5;15.3.5 Non-membrane Damaging Cytotoxin (NMDCY);271
18.3.6;15.3.6 Shiga-Like Toxin;271
18.3.7;15.3.7 Heat-Stable Enterotoxin (ST);271
18.3.8;15.3.8 New Cholera Toxin (NCT);272
18.3.9;15.3.9 Secreted CHO Cell-Elongating Protein (S-CEP);272
18.3.10;15.3.10 Repeat in Toxin (RTX);272
18.4;15.4 Role of Additional Toxins in Inflammation and Immunomodulation in Cholera Disease;273
18.5;References;275
19;16 Vibrio cholerae Hemolysin: An EnigmaticPore-Forming Toxin;281
19.1;16.1 Introduction;281
19.2;16.2 Expression, Isolation, and Purification;282
19.3;16.3 Structure and Biophysical Characteristics;283
19.4;16.4 Receptor Specificity, Membrane Binding, and Bilayer Insertion;287
19.5;16.5 Interaction of VCC with Nonerythroid Cells: Relevance to Disease;289
19.6;16.6 Conclusion;290
19.7;References;290
20;17 Integron-Mediated AntimicrobialResistance in Vibrio cholerae;294
20.1;17.1 Introduction;294
20.2;17.2 General Characteristics and Classes of Integrons;295
20.3;17.3 Mobile Integrons (MIs);296
20.4;17.4 Superintegrons (SIs);298
20.5;17.5 Epidemiology of Vibrio cholerae with Class 1 Integrons;299
20.5.1;17.5.1 South-east Asia;299
20.5.2;17.5.2 South Asia: India;301
20.5.3;17.5.3 Africa;303
20.5.4;17.5.4 Europe;305
20.5.5;17.5.5 South America;305
20.6;17.6 Complex Class 1 and Class 2 Integrons in Vibrio cholerae;305
20.7;17.7 Class 1 Integrons in Other Vibrios;306
20.8;17.8 Conclusion;307
20.9;References;308
21;18 Aquatic Realm and Cholera;314
21.1;18.1 History of Cholera;315
21.1.1;18.1.1 Old Beliefs and Myths About Cholera;315
21.1.2;18.1.2 Historical Background and Global Occurrence of Cholera;315
21.2;18.2 Ecology of Vibrio cholerae;317
21.2.1;18.2.1 Environmental Factors Affecting the Organism;317
21.2.2;18.2.2 Biological Factors Affecting the Organism;318
21.2.2.1;18.2.2.1 Viable but Non-culturable State;318
21.2.2.2;18.2.2.2 Biofilm Formation;320
21.2.2.3;18.2.2.3 Rugosity and Colonial Opacity;321
21.2.2.4;18.2.2.4 Quorum Sensing;322
21.2.2.5;18.2.2.5 Chitinase and Chitin Utilization;324
21.2.2.6;18.2.2.6 Intracellular Existence;325
21.3;18.3 Detection of Vibrio cholerae from the Environments;325
21.3.1;18.3.1 Conventional Bacteriological Culture Methods;325
21.3.2;18.3.2 Colony Blot Lift and Hybridization with DNA Probes;326
21.3.3;18.3.3 Immunological Methods;327
21.3.4;18.3.4 Direct Detection of Vibrio cholerae by PCR;327
21.4;18.4 Prediction and Prevention of Cholera;329
21.4.1;18.4.1 Climatological Models for Prediction;329
21.4.2;18.4.2 Simple Methods for Prevention and Intervention of Cholera;331
21.5;18.5 Summary;333
21.6;References;334
22;19 Management of Cholera;343
22.1;19.1 Background;343
22.2;19.2 Clinical Presentations;345
22.3;19.3 Management;346
22.3.1;19.3.1 Management of Patients with 'No' Dehydration;347
22.3.2;19.3.2 Management of Patient with 'Some' Dehydration;347
22.3.3;19.3.3 Oral Rehydration Salt (ORS) Solution;348
22.3.4;19.3.4 Management of Patient with Severe Dehydration;349
22.3.5;19.3.5 Management with Antibiotic;350
22.3.6;19.3.6 Management of Vomiting;350
22.4;19.4 Feeding;351
22.5;19.5 Other Drugs or Agents;351
22.6;19.6 Complications;351
22.7;References;352
23;Subject Index;356