Rawat Plasma Science and Technology for Emerging Economies

An AAAPT Experience
1. Auflage 2017
ISBN: 978-981-10-4217-1
Verlag: Springer Nature Singapore
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 804 Seiten

This book highlights plasma science and technology-related research and development work at institutes and universities networked through Asian African Association for Plasma Training (AAAPT) which was established in 1988. The AAAPT, with 52 member institutes in 24 countries, promotes the initiation and intensification of plasma research and development through cooperation and technology sharing. With 13 chapters on fusion-relevant, laboratory and industrial plasmas for wide range of applications and basic research and a chapter on AAAPT network, it demonstrates how, with collaborations, high-quality, industrially relevant academic and scientific research on fusion, industrial and laboratory plasmas and plasma diagnostics can be successfully pursued in small research labs. These plasma sciences and technologies include pioneering breakthroughs and applications in (i) fusion relevant research in the quest for long-term, clean energy source development using high-temperature, high- density plasmas and (ii) multibillion-dollar, low-temperature, non-equilibrium and thermal industrial plasmas used in processing, synthesis and electronics.



Rajdeep Singh Rawat received his PhD in Physics from the University of Delhi. He is currently an associate professor of Physics and Deputy Head (Research and Postgraduate Matters) at NSSE/NIE, Nanyang Technological University (NTU), Singapore. He is also the President of Asian African Association for Plasma Training (AAAPT). He is an experimental plasma physicist with expertise in dense plasma focus (DPF), pulsed laser deposition (PLD) and plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD) facilities for fundamental studies on plasma dynamics and radiation/particle emission as well as for wide ranges of applications. He has also worked extensively on a wide variety of applications of these devices, such as high repetition rate portable neutron source, radioisotopes synthesis, soft x-ray lithography, soft and hard x-ray imaging, and pioneered the field of material modification and nano-structured material synthesis using plasma focus devices. He leads the plasma radiation sources lab group at the NTU, secured 28 local/international/industrial research grants, and published over 190 journal papers.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Rawat, Rajdeep Singh

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Contents;5
2;1 Asian African Association for Plasma Training (AAAPT)—History, Network, Activities, and Impact;7
2.1;1.1 Introduction to Asian African Association for Plasma Training (AAAPT);7
2.2;1.2 Missions, Goals, and Impact of AAAPT;8
2.3;1.3 Events Leading to the Formation of AAAPT;10
2.4;1.4 Overview of AAAPT Activities;14
2.4.1;1.4.1 Group Training Programmes and Colleges Organized and Supported by AAAPT;14
2.4.2;1.4.2 Activities at AAAPT Training Centres [1991–2003];17
2.4.3;1.4.3 AAAPT Network Activities 2005 Onwards;20
2.4.4;1.4.4 Facilities Transferred or Developed After Training Programmes or Collaborative Visits Under AAAPT Network Activities;23
2.4.5;1.4.5 Numerical Simulation Workshops;23
2.4.6;1.4.6 Symposia, Workshops, and Conferences Organized or Co-organized by AAPPT;27
2.5;1.5 Summarizing Success of AAAPT;33
2.6;Acknowledgements;37
2.7;References;37
3;2 Dense Plasma Focus—High-Energy-Density Pulsed Plasma Device Based Novel Facility for Controlled Material Processing and Synthesis;44
3.1;2.1 Introduction;44
3.2;2.2 Material Synthesis and Processing;46
3.3;2.3 Plasmas for Material Synthesis and Processing;51
3.3.1;2.3.1 Low-Temperature Plasmas (LTPs) for Material Synthesis and Processing;53
3.3.2;2.3.2 High-Temperature Plasmas for Material Synthesis and Processing;56
3.4;2.4 Dense Plasma Focus (DPF) Device: Introduction, Principle, and Characteristics;59
3.4.1;2.4.1 DPF Device Details;60
3.4.2;2.4.2 Principle of Operation: Plasma Dynamics in DPF Device;65
3.4.3;2.4.3 Key Characteristics of DPF Device;68
3.4.4;2.4.4 Plasma Lifetime in DPF Device and Some Features of Post Pinch Phase;70
3.5;2.5 Material Processing and Synthesis Using DPF Device—Timeline of Milestones;74
3.6;2.6 Material Processing Using DPF Device;79
3.6.1;2.6.1 Mechanism and Physical Processes for Material Processing in DPF Device;81
3.6.2;2.6.2 Selective Examples of Material Processing;87
3.6.2.1;2.6.2.1 Processing of Bulk Substrate Surface;87
3.6.2.2;2.6.2.2 Processing of Thin/Thick Films;91
3.7;2.7 Material Synthesis/Deposition Using DPF Device;95
3.7.1;2.7.1 Advantages of DPF-Based Depositions;95
3.7.1.1;2.7.1.1 High Deposition Rates;96
3.7.1.2;2.7.1.2 Ability to Grow Crystalline Thin Films at Room Temperature;98
3.7.1.3;2.7.1.3 Superior Physical Properties;100
3.7.1.4;2.7.1.4 Versatile Deposition Facility with a Variety of Deposition Options;102
3.7.2;2.7.2 Understanding Mechanisms of Material Synthesis in DPF Device;103
3.8;2.8 Scalability of DPF Devices for Material Processing and Synthesis;105
3.9;2.9 Conclusions;107
3.10;References;108
4;3 The Plasma Focus—Numerical Experiments, Insights and Applications;118
4.1;3.1 Introduction;118
4.1.1;3.1.1 Introduction to the Plasma Focus—Description of the Plasma Focus. How It Works, Dimensions and Lifetimes of the Focus Pinch;118
4.1.2;3.1.2 Review of Models and Simulation;122
4.1.3;3.1.3 A Universal Code for Numerical Experiments of the Mather-Type Plasma Focus;128
4.2;3.2 Lee Model Code;129
4.2.1;3.2.1 The Physics Foundation and Wide-Ranging Applications of the Code;129
4.2.2;3.2.2 The Five Phases of the Plasma Focus;131
4.2.3;3.2.3 The Equations of the Five Phases;134
4.2.3.1;3.2.3.1 Axial Phase (Snowplow Model);134
4.2.3.1.1;Equation of Motion;134
4.2.3.1.2;Circuit (Current) Equation;134
4.2.3.1.3;Normalizing the Generating Equations to Obtain Characteristic Axial Transit Time, Characteristic Axial Speed and Speed Factor S; and Scaling Parameters of Times, ? and Inductances ?;135
4.2.3.1.4;Calculate Voltage Across Input Terminals of Focus Tube;137
4.2.3.1.5;Integration Scheme for Normalized Generating Equations;137
4.2.3.2;3.2.3.2 Radial Inward Shock Phase (Slug Model);137
4.2.3.2.1;Motion of Shock Front;138
4.2.3.2.2;Elongation Speed of CS (Open-Ended at Both Ends);139
4.2.3.2.3;Radial Piston Motion;139
4.2.3.2.4;Circuit Equation During Radial Phase;141
4.2.3.2.5;Normalizing the Generating Equations to Obtain Characteristic Radial Transit Time, Characteristic Radial Transit Speed and Speed Factor S; and Scaling Parameters for Times ?1 and Inductances ?1; also Compare Axial to Radial Length Scale, Time Scale and Speed Scale;141
4.2.3.2.6;Calculate Voltage V Across PF Input Terminals;143
4.2.3.2.7;Integrating for the Radial Inward Shock Phase;143
4.2.3.2.8;Correction for Finite Acoustic (Small Disturbance) Speed;144
4.2.3.3;3.2.3.3 Radial Reflected Shock (RS) Phase;145
4.2.3.3.1;Reflected Shock Speed;145
4.2.3.3.2;Piston Speed;145
4.2.3.3.3;Elongation Speed;145
4.2.3.3.4;Circuit Equation;145
4.2.3.3.5;Tube Voltage;145
4.2.3.4;3.2.3.4 Slow Compression (Pinch) Phase;146
4.2.3.4.1;Radiation-Coupled Dynamics (Piston) Equation;146
4.2.3.4.2;Joule Heating Component of dQ/dt;146
4.2.3.4.3;Radiation Components of dQ/dt;147
4.2.3.4.4;Plasma Self-absorption and Transition from Volumetric Emission to Surface Emission;147
4.2.3.4.5;Neutron Yield;148
4.2.3.4.6;Column Elongation;149
4.2.3.4.7;Circuit Current Equation;149
4.2.3.4.8;Voltage Across Plasma Focus Terminals;150
4.2.3.4.9;Pinch Phase Dynamics and Yields of Neutrons, Soft X-rays, Ion Beams and Fast Plasma Stream;150
4.2.3.5;3.2.3.5 Expanded Column Axial Phase;150
4.2.4;3.2.4 Procedure for Using the Code;151
4.2.5;3.2.5 Adding a 6th Phase: From Pinch (Slow Compression) Phase to Large Volume Plasma Phase-Transition Phase 4a;154
4.2.5.1;3.2.5.1 The 5-Phase Model Is Adequate for Low Inductance L0 Plasma Focus Devices;154
4.2.5.2;3.2.5.2 Factors Distinguishing the Two Types of Plasma Focus Devices;156
4.2.5.3;3.2.5.3 Procedure for Using 6-Phase Code—Control Panel for Adding Anomalous Phases;158
4.2.6;3.2.6 Conclusion for Description of the Lee Model Code;159
4.3;3.3 Scaling Properties of the Plasma Focus Arising from the Numerical Experiments;160
4.3.1;3.3.1 Various Plasma Focus Devices;160
4.3.2;3.3.2 Scaling Properties (Mainly Axial Phase);160
4.3.3;3.3.3 Scaling Properties (Mainly Radial Phase);163
4.3.4;3.3.4 Scaling Properties: Rules of Thumb;164
4.3.5;3.3.5 Designing an Efficient Plasma Focus: Rules of Thumb [10];165
4.3.6;3.3.6 Tapered Anode, Curved Electrodes, Current-Stepped PF, Theta Pinch;166
4.3.6.1;3.3.6.1 Tapered Anode;166
4.3.6.2;3.3.6.2 Curved Electrodes;167
4.3.6.2.1;Bora Plasma Focus;167
4.3.6.2.2;Spherical Plasma Focus, KU200;168
4.3.6.2.3;A Note on the 2-D Model of Abdul Al-Halim et al.;170
4.3.6.3;3.3.6.3 Current-Stepped Plasma Focus;170
4.3.6.4;3.3.6.4 Procedure to Use Lee Code for the Above Devices;171
4.3.6.5;3.3.6.5 Theta Pinch Version of the Code;171
4.4;3.4 Insights and Scaling Laws of the Plasma Focus Arising from the Numerical Experiments;172
4.4.1;3.4.1 Using the Lee Model Code as Reference for Diagnostics;172
4.4.1.1;3.4.1.1 Comments on Computed Quantities by Lee Model Code;172
4.4.1.2;3.4.1.2 Correlating Computed Plasma Dynamics with Measured Plasma Properties—A Very Powerful Diagnostic Technique;175
4.4.2;3.4.2 Insight 1—Pinch Current Limitation Effect as Static Inductance Is Reduced Towards Zero;176
4.4.3;3.4.3 Neutron Yield Limitations Due to Current Limitations as L0 Is Reduced;178
4.4.4;3.4.4 Insight 2—Scaling Laws for Neutron—Scaling Laws for Neutrons from Numerical Experiments Over a Range of Energies from 10 kJ to 25 MJ;180
4.4.5;3.4.5 Insight 3—Scaling Laws for Soft X-ray Yield;182
4.4.5.1;3.4.5.1 Computation of Neon SXR Yield;182
4.4.5.2;3.4.5.2 Scaling Laws for Neon SXR Over a Range of Energies from 0.2 kJ to 1 MJ;183
4.4.6;3.4.6 Insight 4—Scaling Laws for Fast Ion Beams and Fast Plasma Streams from Numerical Experiments;187
4.4.6.1;3.4.6.1 Computation of Beam Ion Properties;187
4.4.6.2;3.4.6.2 The Ion Beam Flux and Fluence Equations;187
4.4.6.3;3.4.6.3 Consequential Properties of the Ion Beam [59];189
4.4.6.4;3.4.6.4 Fast Ion Beam and Fast Plasma Stream Properties of a Range of Plasma Focus Devices—Investigations of Damage to Plasma Facing Wall Materials in Fusion Reactors;190
4.4.6.5;3.4.6.5 Slow Focus Mode SFM Versus Fast Focus Mode FFM-Advantage of SFM for Fast Plasma Stream Nano-materials Fabrication: Selection of Energy of Bombarding Particles by Pressure Control [63];193
4.4.6.6;3.4.6.6 The Dual PF (DuPF)—Optimizing FFM and SFM in One Machine [61];196
4.4.7;3.4.7 Insight 5—Neutron Saturation;198
4.4.7.1;3.4.7.1 The Global Neutron Scaling Law;200
4.4.7.2;3.4.7.2 The Dynamic Resistance;201
4.4.7.3;3.4.7.3 The Interaction of a Constant Dynamic Resistance with a Reducing Generator Impedance Causes Deterioration in Current Scaling;202
4.4.7.4;3.4.7.4 Deterioration in Current Scaling Causes Deterioration in Neutron Scaling;203
4.4.7.5;3.4.7.5 Beyond Presently Observed Neutron Saturation Regimes;204
4.4.7.6;3.4.7.6 Neutron Scaling—Its Relationship with the Plasma Focus Properties;205
4.4.7.7;3.4.7.7 Relationship with Plasma Focus Scaling Properties;205
4.4.8;3.4.8 Summary of Scaling Laws;206
4.5;3.5 Radiative Cooling and Collapse in Plasma Focus;207
4.5.1;3.5.1 Introduction to Radiative Cooling;207
4.5.2;3.5.2 The Radiation-Coupled Dynamics for the Magnetic Piston;209
4.5.3;3.5.3 The Reduced Pease-Braginskii Current;209
4.5.3.1;3.5.3.1 The Reduced Pease-Braginskii Current for PF1000 at 350 kJ;210
4.5.3.2;3.5.3.2 The Reduced Pease-Braginskii Current for INTI PF at 2 kJ;211
4.5.4;3.5.4 Effect of Plasma Self-absorption;211
4.5.5;3.5.5 Characteristic Times of Radiation;212
4.5.5.1;3.5.5.1 Definition-Pinch Energy/Radiation Power;213
4.5.5.2;3.5.5.2 Characteristic Depletion Time for Bremsstrahlung;213
4.5.5.3;3.5.5.3 Characteristic Depletion Time for Line Radiation;214
4.5.5.4;3.5.5.4 Characteristic Depletion Time tQ for PF1000;214
4.5.5.5;3.5.5.5 Characteristic Depletion Time tQ for INTI PF;215
4.5.6;3.5.6 Numerical Experiments on PF1000 and INTI PF;216
4.5.6.1;3.5.6.1 Fitting for Model Parameters in PF1000;216
4.5.6.2;3.5.6.2 PF 1000 in Deuterium and Helium—Pinch Dynamics Showing no Sign of Radiative Cooling or Collapse;216
4.5.6.3;3.5.6.3 PF 1000 in Neon 23 kV, 1 Torr—Pinch Dynamics Showing Signs of Radiative Cooling and Enhanced Compression;218
4.5.6.4;3.5.6.4 PF1000 in Argon, Krypton and Xenon—Pinch Dynamics Showing Strong Radiative Collapse;219
4.5.6.5;3.5.6.5 PF 1000 in Various Gases—Summary of Radiative Pinch Dynamics;221
4.5.6.6;3.5.6.6 Comparison of rmin from Experiments and Simulation in PF1000;221
4.5.6.7;3.5.6.7 Six Regimes of the PF Pinch Characterized by Relative Dominance of Joule Heating Power, Radiative Power and Dynamic Power Terms;221
4.5.6.8;3.5.6.8 Experiments of INTIPF Showing Radiative Collapse and High-Energy Density (HED);223
4.5.7;3.5.7 Conclusion for Section on Radiative Collapse;226
4.6;3.6 Conclusion;226
4.7;Acknowledgements;228
4.8;References;228
5;4 X-ray Diagnostics of Pulsed Plasmas Using Filtered Detectors;238
5.1;4.1 Introduction;238
5.1.1;4.1.1 X-ray Sources—Traditional and Plasma;239
5.1.2;4.1.2 X-ray Detectors—Spectral, Spatial and Temporal Resolution;241
5.1.3;4.1.3 X-ray Production Mechanisms;244
5.1.4;4.1.4 Filter and Detector Absorption Mechanisms;246
5.2;4.2 Experimental Setup;250
5.2.1;4.2.1 Determination of Detector Active Layer;255
5.2.2;4.2.2 Detector—Choice of Filters;255
5.2.3;4.2.3 Construction of Detector Housing;260
5.2.4;4.2.4 Debris Mitigation;261
5.3;4.3 Analysis Method;263
5.3.1;4.3.1 Rose Filter Method;263
5.3.2;4.3.2 Calculation of Expected Detector Signals Based on Known Spectra;266
5.3.3;4.3.3 The Inverse Problem: Calculating the Spectra from Detector Signals;268
5.3.4;4.3.4 Error Analysis;270
5.4;4.4 Summary and Conclusion;271
5.5;References;272
6;5 Pulsed Plasma Sources for X-ray Microscopy and Lithography Applications;274
6.1;5.1 Introduction;274
6.1.1;5.1.1 Pinch Plasma X-ray Sources;275
6.1.2;5.1.2 X-ray Production and Evaluation Mechanisms;277
6.1.3;5.1.3 Numerical Simulation—Tools for Radiation Source Optimization;278
6.2;5.2 Pinch Plasma Sources for X-ray Microscopy;280
6.2.1;5.2.1 Soft X-ray Radiography;281
6.2.2;5.2.2 Hard X-ray Radiography;281
6.2.3;5.2.3 X-ray Microscopy of Living Biological Specimen;287
6.3;5.3 Plasma Focus as X-ray Source for Lithography;288
6.3.1;5.3.1 Repetitive Mode of Operation;291
6.3.2;5.3.2 Miniature Plasma Focus as a Lithography Source;292
6.3.3;5.3.3 MHD Simulation—Tools for Radiation Source Optimization;294
6.4;5.4 Summary and Conclusion;296
6.5;References;296
7;6 Neutron and Proton Diagnostics for Pulsed Plasma Fusion Devices;298
7.1;6.1 Introduction;298
7.1.1;6.1.1 Fusion Reactions in Plasmas;299
7.1.2;6.1.2 Reaction Cross Sections and Kinematics;300
7.1.3;6.1.3 Overview of Neutron and Proton Detectors;304
7.2;6.2 Neutron Diagnostics;304
7.2.1;6.2.1 Thermal Neutron Detectors;305
7.2.2;6.2.2 Fast Neutron Detectors;307
7.2.3;6.2.3 Fluence Anisotropy Measurements;311
7.2.4;6.2.4 Neutron Energy Measurements;312
7.2.5;6.2.5 Monte Carlo Simulation for Neutron Detector;316
7.3;6.3 Proton Diagnostics;327
7.3.1;6.3.1 Polymer Nuclear Track Detectors;328
7.3.2;6.3.2 Proton Stopping-Power and Range;329
7.3.3;6.3.3 Proton Energy Spectroscopy Based on Range;330
7.3.4;6.3.4 Proton Imaging of the Fusion Source;334
7.3.5;6.3.5 Coded Aperture Imaging;335
7.3.6;6.3.6 Proton Gyration in Magnetic Field;348
7.3.7;6.3.7 Some Experiments and Results;350
7.4;6.4 Conclusion;355
7.5;Acknowledgements;356
7.6;References;356
8;7 Plasma Focus Device: A Novel Facility for Hard Coatings;359
8.1;7.1 Introduction;359
8.2;7.2 Studies of Ions Emitted from Plasma Focus;365
8.3;7.3 Deposition of Nitride and Carbide Coatings;371
8.3.1;7.3.1 Growth of TiAlN Coatings;373
8.3.1.1;7.3.1.1 Phase Identification;373
8.3.1.2;7.3.1.2 Micro-hardness;377
8.3.2;7.3.2 Synthesis of Zirconium Nitride Films;378
8.3.2.1;7.3.2.1 Microstructural Analysis;379
8.3.2.2;7.3.2.2 Micro-hardness Analysis;383
8.3.3;7.3.3 Deposition of ZrON Composite Films;384
8.3.3.1;7.3.3.1 Structural Analysis;385
8.3.3.2;7.3.3.2 Morphological Analysis;387
8.3.3.3;7.3.3.3 Mechanical Property Analysis;388
8.3.4;7.3.4 Growth of Nanocrystalline ZrAlO;389
8.3.4.1;7.3.4.1 XRD Analysis;389
8.3.4.2;7.3.4.2 SEM Analysis;392
8.3.4.3;7.3.4.3 Micro-Hardness Analysis;394
8.3.5;7.3.5 Mechanical Properties of Nanocomposite Al/a-C;396
8.3.5.1;7.3.5.1 XRD Analysis;396
8.3.5.2;7.3.5.2 XPS Analysis;398
8.3.5.3;7.3.5.3 Raman Analysis;398
8.3.5.4;7.3.5.4 Surface Morphology;399
8.3.5.5;7.3.5.5 Mechanical Properties;401
8.3.6;7.3.6 Hard TiCx/SiC/a-C:H Nanocomposite Thin Films;401
8.3.6.1;7.3.6.1 XRD Results;402
8.3.6.2;7.3.6.2 SEM Results;403
8.3.6.3;7.3.6.3 Hardness Measurements;406
8.4;7.4 Conclusions;407
8.5;References;410
9;8 Research on IR-T1 Tokamak;417
9.1;8.1 Introduction;417
9.2;8.2 Thermonuclear Fusion;418
9.2.1;8.2.1 Confinement Fusion;419
9.3;8.3 Tokamak;420
9.4;8.4 IR-T1 Tokamak;421
9.4.1;8.4.1 Biasing Systems in IR-T1 Tokamak;422
9.4.2;8.4.2 Resonant Helical Magnetic Field in IR-T1 Tokamak;423
9.5;8.5 Plasma Diagnostics in IR-T1 Tokamak;424
9.5.1;8.5.1 Magnetic Diagnostics;424
9.5.1.1;8.5.1.1 Rogowski Coil;424
9.5.1.2;8.5.1.2 Loop Voltage;425
9.5.1.3;8.5.1.3 Mirnov Coils;426
9.5.1.3.1;Control of MHD Activity by Limiter Biasing System in IR-T1 Tokamak;426
9.5.1.3.2;Study of Magnetic Islands Width in IR-T1 Tokamak;433
9.5.1.4;8.5.1.4 Magnetic Probes;438
9.5.1.4.1;Determination of the Toroidal Field Ripple and Shafranov Parameter by Discrete Magnetic Probes;443
9.5.1.4.2;Measurements of the Poloidal Beta and Internal Inductance with the Diamagnetic Loop;445
9.5.1.4.3;The Effect of Cold Limiter Biased System on the Plasma Internal Inductance in IR-T1 Tokamak;447
9.5.2;8.5.2 Electrical Probes;450
9.5.2.1;8.5.2.1 Principles of Langmuir Probe Operation;454
9.5.2.2;8.5.2.2 Single Langmuir Probe;454
9.5.2.2.1;The Control of Turbulent Transport in IR-T1 Tokamak by External Resonant Fields;455
9.5.2.3;8.5.2.3 Ball-Pen Probe;461
9.5.2.3.1;Study of Electron Temperature by the Langmuir Ball-Pen Probe;464
9.5.2.4;8.5.2.4 Emissive Probe;467
9.5.2.5;8.5.2.5 Mach Probe;469
9.5.2.5.1;The Influence of the Biased Electrode System on the Rotation Velocity of Plasma;470
9.5.2.5.2;The Study of Plasma Flow Rotation in the Presence of a Resonant Helical Magnetic Field;473
9.6;8.6 Conclusion;475
9.7;Acknowledgements;476
9.8;References;476
10;9 Cost-Effective Plasma Experiments for Developing Countries;479
10.1;9.1 Introduction;479
10.2;9.2 Plasma Devices and Their Applications;480
10.2.1;9.2.1 50 Hz AC Glow Discharge;480
10.2.1.1;9.2.1.1 Application of 50 Hz Plasma System for Graft Polymerization of Polyimide Film to Improve Adhesion of Copper by Electroless Plating;484
10.2.1.2;9.2.1.2 Application of a 50 Hz AC Glow Discharge for Surface Modification of Biomedical Materials;484
10.2.2;9.2.2 Dielectric Barrier Discharge (DBD);489
10.2.2.1;9.2.2.1 Parallel-Plate DBD System;490
10.2.2.2;9.2.2.2 Tubular DBD System with Coaxial Electrodes;491
10.2.2.3;9.2.2.3 Applications of Parallel-Plate Atmospheric Pressure DBD for Polymer Surface Treatment;492
10.2.2.4;9.2.2.4 Applications of the Tubular DBD as a Chemical Reactor;493
10.2.3;9.2.3 Nonequilibrium Atmospheric Pressure Plasma Jets;493
10.2.3.1;9.2.3.1 Conditions to Operate Nonequilibrium Discharges at Atmospheric Pressure;494
10.2.3.2;9.2.3.2 Some Configurations of Nonequilibrium Plasma Jets;496
10.2.3.3;9.2.3.3 Characteristics of Nonequilibrium APPJs;497
10.2.3.4;9.2.3.4 Applications of Nonequilibrium Plasma Jets;504
10.2.3.4.1;Inactivation of Bacteria;504
10.2.3.4.2;Treatment on Malignant Cells;506
10.2.3.4.3;Surface Modification;507
10.2.3.4.4;Synthesis of Nanoparticles;507
10.2.4;9.2.4 Vacuum Spark and Flash X-Ray Tube;510
10.2.4.1;9.2.4.1 Introduction;510
10.2.4.2;9.2.4.2 An Example of a Low-Cost Vacuum Spark System;512
10.2.4.3;9.2.4.3 The Flash X-Ray Tube (UMFX);514
10.2.4.4;9.2.4.4 Applications of the UMFX Pulsed X-Ray Source;515
10.2.5;9.2.5 Synthesis of Nanoparticles by the Wire Explosion Technique;517
10.2.5.1;9.2.5.1 Introduction;517
10.2.5.2;9.2.5.2 The Wire Explosion System at University of Malaya [180];518
10.2.5.3;9.2.5.3 Syntheses of Nanopowder by Wire Explosion;519
10.3;9.3 Conclusion;521
10.4;Acknowledgements;521
10.5;References;521
11;10 Radio Frequency Planar Inductively Coupled Plasma: Fundamentals and Applications;530
11.1;10.1 Introduction;530
11.1.1;10.1.1 Introduction to Inductively Coupled Plasmas (ICPs);530
11.1.2;10.1.2 Brief Historical Development of the Inductive Discharge;531
11.2;10.2 Fundamentals;533
11.2.1;10.2.1 Configurations of the Inductive Source;533
11.2.2;10.2.2 Impedance Matching;535
11.2.3;10.2.3 Modes of Operation and Hysteresis;538
11.2.3.1;10.2.3.1 E Mode and H Mode;538
11.2.3.2;10.2.3.2 Mode Transitions and Hysteresis;538
11.2.4;10.2.4 Power Balance in RF Planar ICPs;539
11.2.4.1;10.2.4.1 Power Balance Model;540
11.2.4.2;10.2.4.2 Total Absorbed Electron Power, Pabs;541
11.2.4.3;10.2.4.3 Electron Power Loss, Ploss;543
11.2.4.4;10.2.4.4 Mode Transition Dynamics and Hysteresis in an ICP Discharge;546
11.2.5;10.2.5 Electromagnetic Field Distributions in RF Planar ICPs;548
11.2.5.1;10.2.5.1 Electromagnetic Field Equations;549
11.2.5.2;10.2.5.2 H Mode Field Equations;552
11.2.5.2.1;Separation of Variables Method for the H Mode Field Model;553
11.2.5.2.2;Solving the Boundary Constants for H Mode Field Model;557
11.2.5.3;10.2.5.3 E Mode Field Equations;560
11.2.5.3.1;Separation of Variables Method for the E Mode Field Model;562
11.2.5.3.2;Solving the Boundary Constants for E Mode Field Model;564
11.2.5.4;10.2.5.4 Calculation of Electron Collision Frequency, ?;567
11.2.5.5;10.2.5.5 Electromagnetic Field Characteristics in RF Planar ICPs;568
11.2.6;10.2.6 Neutral Gas Heating in RF Planar ICPs;572
11.2.6.1;10.2.6.1 The Effects of Neutral Gas Heating on ICP Characteristics;573
11.2.6.2;10.2.6.2 Measurement of ICP Neutral Gas Temperature with AOES;576
11.2.6.2.1;Estimation of Neutral Gas Temperature of an Argon ICP Using the Nitrogen Second Positive System (N2C3?u ? B3?g);577
11.3;10.3 Applications of ICPs;582
11.3.1;10.3.1 Inductive L582
11.3.2;10.3.2 Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS);584
11.3.3;10.3.3 Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition (ICP-PECVD);585
11.3.4;10.3.4 Reactive Ion Etching (RIE);587
11.4;10.4 Chapter Summary;589
11.5;References;589
12;11 Plasma Polymerization: Electronics and Biomedical Application;595
12.1;11.1 Introduction;595
12.2;11.2 Generation of Plasma;597
12.2.1;11.2.1 Mechanisms of Plasma Polymerization;598
12.2.2;11.2.2 Types of Glow Discharge;600
12.2.3;11.2.3 Plasma Polymerization Apparatus;604
12.2.4;11.2.4 Effect of Process Variables on Polymerization;605
12.2.5;11.2.5 Feed Gases Used in Plasma Polymerization;611
12.2.6;11.2.6 Plasma Polymerization Process: Challenges and Issues;613
12.3;11.3 Properties of Plasma Polymers;614
12.3.1;11.3.1 Optical Properties;615
12.3.2;11.3.2 Electrical Properties;618
12.3.3;11.3.3 Chemical and Structural Properties;620
12.3.4;11.3.4 Surface Properties;623
12.4;11.4 Plasma Polymer Thin Films for Electronic Applications;624
12.4.1;11.4.1 Various Roles of Plasma-Deposited Thin Films in Thin Film Transistor (TFT) Technology;625
12.4.1.1;11.4.1.1 Plasma Polymer Thin Films as Gate Dielectric Material;626
12.4.1.2;11.4.1.2 Hybrid Gate Dielectric Thin Films;628
12.4.1.3;11.4.1.3 Plasma Polymer Buffer Layers for Conventional Inorganic Dielectric Films;629
12.4.2;11.4.2 Plasma Polymers for Organic Light Emitting Diodes (OLEDs) Applications;631
12.4.3;11.4.3 Plasma Deposited Films for Device Encapsulation;633
12.5;11.5 Plasma Polymer Thin Films for Biomedical Applications;635
12.5.1;11.5.1 Drug Encapsulation and Controlled Release;637
12.5.2;11.5.2 Antibacterial Coatings;639
12.5.2.1;11.5.2.1 Antibacterial Coatings—Surface Functionalization;640
12.5.2.2;11.5.2.2 Antibacterial Coatings—Surface Nanostructuring;642
12.5.2.3;11.5.2.3 Antibacterial Coatings—Nanoparticle Incorporation;644
12.5.3;11.5.3 Protective Coating;645
12.5.4;11.5.4 Biosensing;646
12.6;11.6 Conclusion;646
12.7;References;647
13;12 Cold Atmospheric Plasma Sources—An Upcoming Innovation in Plasma Medicine;660
13.1;12.1 Introduction;660
13.2;12.2 CAP: Principles and Design;664
13.3;12.3 Characteristics of the Hybrid CAP®;671
13.3.1;12.3.1 CAP Power Determination and Skin Contact Temperature;671
13.3.2;12.3.2 Radicals and UV Determination;673
13.4;12.4 The Hybrid CAP® Case Studies;679
13.4.1;12.4.1 Disinfection Measure;679
13.4.2;12.4.2 Infected Wound;685
13.5;Acknowledgements;689
13.6;References;689
14;13 Dielectric Barrier Discharge (DBD) Plasmas and Their Applications;693
14.1;13.1 Introduction;693
14.2;13.2 Various Types of Plasmas Useful in Industry;695
14.2.1;13.2.1 Low-Pressure Plasmas;695
14.2.1.1;13.2.1.1 DC Discharge;695
14.2.1.2;13.2.1.2 RF Discharge;697
14.2.1.3;13.2.1.3 Microwave Discharge;698
14.2.2;13.2.2 Atmospheric Pressure Plasma;699
14.2.2.1;13.2.2.1 Corona Discharge;699
14.2.2.2;13.2.2.2 Arc Discharge;701
14.2.2.3;13.2.2.3 Dielectric Barrier Discharge (DBD);702
14.2.2.4;13.2.2.4 Surface Barrier Discharge (SBD);703
14.2.2.5;13.2.2.5 Atmospheric Pressure Glow Discharge (APGD);703
14.3;13.3 Generation and Characterization of DBD;705
14.3.1;13.3.1 Introduction;705
14.3.2;13.3.2 Principle and Operation of DBD;705
14.3.3;13.3.3 Generation of DBD Plasma in Different Configurations;707
14.3.3.1;13.3.3.1 Parallel-Plate Electrode System;708
14.3.3.2;13.3.3.2 Cylindrical Electrode System;708
14.3.3.3;13.3.3.3 Coaxial Electrode System;709
14.3.3.4;13.3.3.4 Atmospheric Pressure Plasma Jet (APPJ);710
14.3.4;13.3.4 Characterization of DBD;712
14.3.4.1;13.3.4.1 Electrical Characterization;713
14.3.4.2;13.3.4.2 Optical Characterization;714
14.4;13.4 Application of DBD;718
14.4.1;13.4.1 Ozone Generation;719
14.4.2;13.4.2 Material Processing—Polymer Surface Modification;721
14.4.3;13.4.3 Plasma Medicine;730
14.5;13.5 Summary;732
14.6;Acknowledgements;733
14.7;References;733
15;14 Carbon-Based Nanomaterials Using Low-Temperature Plasmas for Energy Storage Application;738
15.1;14.1 Introduction;738
15.2;14.2 Lithium-Ion Battery;742
15.2.1;14.2.1 Primary Versus Secondary Batteries;742
15.2.2;14.2.2 Rechargeable Battery Chemistries;743
15.2.3;14.2.3 Conventional LIB;746
15.2.4;14.2.4 Electrode Materials for LIBs;748
15.2.4.1;14.2.4.1 Insertion Electrodes;749
15.2.4.1.1;Alloying;751
15.2.4.1.2;Conversion;752
15.3;14.3 Supercapacitors (SCs);753
15.3.1;14.3.1 Fundamentals of Supercapacitors (SCs);754
15.3.2;14.3.2 Advantages and Challenges of SCs;757
15.3.2.1;14.3.2.1 Advantages of SCs;757
15.3.2.2;14.3.2.2 Challenges for SCs;758
15.3.3;14.3.3 Electrode Materials;759
15.3.3.1;14.3.3.1 Carbon Materials;760
15.3.3.2;14.3.3.2 Faradaic Materials;761
15.3.3.2.1;Conductive Polymers (CPs);762
15.3.3.2.2;Metal Oxides/Hydroxides;762
15.4;14.4 Low-Temperature Plasma for Syntheses of Energy Materials;763
15.4.1;14.4.1 Plasma Production Using Electric Fields;764
15.4.2;14.4.2 Radio Frequency (RF) Discharge;764
15.4.2.1;14.4.2.1 Capacitively Coupled Plasma (CCP) Discharge;766
15.4.2.2;14.4.2.2 Inductively Coupled Plasma (ICP) Discharge;768
15.5;14.5 Low-Temperature Plasma-Based Carbon Materials for Energy Storage Performance;769
15.5.1;14.5.1 Advantages of Plasma-Assisted Strategies in Nano-Structural Preparation;770
15.5.2;14.5.2 Classifications of Plasma-Assisted Approaches for Nanostructure Fabrication;772
15.5.3;14.5.3 Nanostructures Fabricated by PECVD;773
15.5.3.1;14.5.3.1 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs);774
15.5.3.1.1;Electrically Guided Alignment of Carbon Nanotubes;774
15.5.3.1.2;Amorphous Carbon Removal and Related Plasma Chemistries;775
15.5.3.1.3;Energy Application of CNTs;779
15.5.3.1.4;CNTs for LIBs;779
15.5.3.1.5;CNTs for SCs;783
15.5.3.2;14.5.3.2 Vertically Oriented Graphene Nanosheets (VGNSs);783
15.5.3.2.1;Plasma-Assisted Growth;785
15.5.3.2.2;VGNS Growth on Different Substrates;785
15.5.3.2.3;VGNS Growth Using Different Precursors;787
15.5.3.2.4;Growth Mechanisms of VGNSs;788
15.5.3.3;14.5.3.3 Energy Application of VGNSs;792
15.5.3.3.1;VGNSs for Supercapacitors (SCs);792
15.5.3.3.2;VGNSs for LIBs;795
15.6;14.6 Conclusions and Outlook;798
15.7;References;799