Rogsch / Schadschneider / Schreckenberg Pedestrian and Evacuation Dynamics 2008

1. Auflage 2010
ISBN: 978-3-642-04504-2
Verlag: Springer
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: Adobe DRM (»Systemvoraussetzungen)

E-Book, Englisch, 833 Seiten

Autoren/Hrsg.

Rogsch, Christian

Schadschneider, Andreas

Schreckenberg, Michael

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Preface;5
2;Contents;7
3;Part I Experiment and Evacuation;15
3.1;The UK WTC9/11 Evacuation Study: An Overview of the Methodologies Employed and Some Preliminary Analysis;16
3.1.1;Introduction;16
3.1.1.1;Research Themes;18
3.1.2;Research Protocols;19
3.1.2.1;Recruitment;20
3.1.2.2;Interview Structure and Content;20
3.1.3;Development of HEED Database and Coding Process ;21
3.1.4;Preliminary Data Analysis;23
3.1.4.1;Stoppage Data for WTC1;24
3.1.4.2;Stair Travel Speeds;27
3.1.4.3;Response Times;33
3.1.5;Concluding Comments;35
3.1.6;References;36
3.2;Evacuation Movement in Photoluminescent Stairwells;38
3.2.1;Introduction;38
3.2.2;Methodology;40
3.2.2.1;Experimental Design;41
3.2.2.2;Data Gathering;42
3.2.3;Field Study Results;43
3.2.3.1;Questionnaire Results;43
3.2.3.1.1;Respondent Profile;43
3.2.3.1.2;Alarm and Initial Response;44
3.2.3.1.3;Evacuation Times;45
3.2.3.1.4;Stairwell Evacuation;46
3.2.3.2;Data from the Video Cameras;48
3.2.3.2.1;Time to Start;48
3.2.3.2.2;Speed of Movement;49
3.2.3.2.3;Observed Behavior;51
3.2.4;Summary and Conclusions;53
3.2.4.1;Evacuees' Subjective Assessment of PLM Signage;53
3.2.4.2;Occupant Movement;53
3.2.4.3;Comparison of PLM Installations;54
3.2.4.4;Comparison of PLM with Emergency Lighting;54
3.2.5;References;55
3.3;Automatic Extraction of Pedestrian Trajectories from Video Recordings;56
3.3.1;Introduction and Motivation;56
3.3.2;Experiments;57
3.3.3;Extraction of Trajectories;58
3.3.3.1;Calibration;58
3.3.3.2;Recognition;59
3.3.3.3;Tracking;62
3.3.3.4;Height Detection;62
3.3.4;Results;63
3.3.4.1;Implementation;63
3.3.4.2;Trajectories;64
3.3.4.3;Combination of Camera Views;64
3.3.4.4;Missing Frames;65
3.3.4.5;Error;65
3.3.5;Summary and Outlook;67
3.3.6;References;67
3.4;Stairwell Evacuation from Buildings: What We Know We Don't Know;68
3.4.1;Introduction;68
3.4.2;Occupant Movement in Building Evacuation;69
3.4.3;Current Study;70
3.4.4;Conclusions;77
3.4.5;References;78
3.5;Evacuation of a High Floor Metro Train in a Tunnel Situation: Experimental Findings;80
3.5.1;Introduction;80
3.5.1.1;Description of the Train;81
3.5.1.2;Description of the Environmental Factors;82
3.5.1.3;Description of the Participants;83
3.5.1.3.1;Physical Data of the Participants;83
3.5.1.3.2;Distribution of the Participants;85
3.5.1.4;Documentation and Evaluation of the Experiments;86
3.5.1.5;Description of the Evacuation Set up;86
3.5.2;Observations and Findings;87
3.5.2.1;Trial 1: Flow Rates;87
3.5.2.2;Trial 2: Exit Behavior;88
3.5.2.3;Trial 2: Formation of Congestions;91
3.5.3;Conclusions;93
3.5.4;References;93
3.6;Using Laser Scanner Data to Calibrate Certain Aspects of Microscopic Pedestrian Motion Models;95
3.6.1;Introduction;95
3.6.2;The Experiments at PAMELA;96
3.6.3;The Tracking Algorithm;99
3.6.4;Modelling of Stopping and Turning Movements;102
3.6.5;Conclusions;104
3.6.6;Acknowledgements;105
3.6.7;References;105
3.7;Pedestrian Vision and Collision Avoidance Behavior: Investigation of the Information Process Space of Pedestrians Using an Eye Tracker;107
3.7.1;Background;107
3.7.2;Methodologies;111
3.7.3;Results;112
3.7.3.1;General Fixation Behavior;112
3.7.3.2;Fixations by the Object Type;113
3.7.3.3;Location of the Observed Fixations;113
3.7.4;Discussion;116
3.7.5;Conclusions;118
3.7.6;References;118
3.8;FDS+Evac: An Agent Based Fire Evacuation Model;121
3.8.1;Introduction;121
3.8.2;Method;122
3.8.2.1;Movement Algorithm;123
3.8.2.2;Interaction of the Agents and Fire;126
3.8.3;Results;127
3.8.3.1;Test Case A;127
3.8.3.2;Test Case B;129
3.8.3.3;Test Case C;130
3.8.4;Summary;131
3.8.5;Acknowledgements;131
3.8.6;References;131
3.9;Comparisons of Evacuation Efficiency and Pre-travel Activity Times in Response to a Sounder and Two Different Voice Alarm Messages;133
3.9.1;Introduction;133
3.9.2;Methods;135
3.9.3;Results;137
3.9.3.1;Shopping Center Restaurant Evacuation;137
3.9.3.2;Multistory Office Building Meeting Room Evacuation;138
3.9.3.3;University Teaching Laboratory Experiment with Three Alarm Types;139
3.9.3.4;Findings from Questionnaire-University Teaching Laboratory Experiment with Three Alarm Types;142
3.9.4;Discussion;143
3.9.4.1;Effects of Alarm Type on PTAT Recognition and Response Times;143
3.9.4.2;Perceived Seriousness of the Alarm;144
3.9.4.3;Group Interactions;145
3.9.4.4;Design Behavioural Scenarios;145
3.9.5;Conclusion;146
3.9.6;References;146
3.10;Design of Voice Alarms-the Benefit of Mentioning Fire and the Use of a Synthetic Voice;147
3.10.1;Introduction;147
3.10.2;Method;149
3.10.2.1;Design of Messages;149
3.10.2.2;Questionnaire Study at IKEA;150
3.10.2.2.1;Participants;150
3.10.2.2.2;Procedure;150
3.10.2.3;Evacuation Experiments at Lund University;151
3.10.2.3.1;Participants;151
3.10.2.3.2;Procedure;151
3.10.3;Results;152
3.10.3.1;Synthetic Versus Human Voice ;153
3.10.3.2;With Versus Without `Fire';153
3.10.4;Discussion;154
3.10.5;Conclusions;155
3.10.6;References;156
3.11;Enhanced Empirical Data for the Fundamental Diagram and the Flow Through Bottlenecks;157
3.11.1;Introduction;157
3.11.2;Review of Empirical Results;158
3.11.2.1;Fundamental Diagram;158
3.11.2.2;Bottleneck Flow;160
3.11.3;Research Project-Overview;162
3.11.4;Influence of the Measurement Method;163
3.11.5;Conclusions;167
3.11.6;References;167
3.12;Parameters of Pedestrian Flow for Modeling Purposes;169
3.12.1;Introduction;169
3.12.2;Fundamental Laws of Pedestrian Flow;170
3.12.3;The Theory for Emotional State, Density of Flow and Travel Speed Law;173
3.12.4;Special Cases of Foot Traffic Flows;174
3.12.4.1;Cross Flows;175
3.12.4.2;Contra Flows;175
3.12.4.3;Movement on Routs with Unlimited Width;176
3.12.4.4;Movement Through Door Aperture;176
3.12.5;Modeling of Pedestrians Movement in a Flow;176
3.12.6;Conclusions;179
3.12.7;References;181
3.13;Emergency Preparedness in the Case of a Tsunami-Evacuation Analysis and Traffic Optimization for the Indonesian City of Padang;183
3.13.1;Introduction;184
3.13.2;Related Work;185
3.13.3;Input Data;185
3.13.3.1;Geographical Information Derived from Remote Sensing;186
3.13.3.2;Inundation Scenarios;187
3.13.3.3;Socio-Economic Data;188
3.13.4;Simulation Framework;190
3.13.5;Results;191
3.13.6;Existing Problems;191
3.13.7;Conclusion;192
3.13.8;References;193
3.14;Case Studies on Evacuation Behaviour in a Hotel Building in BART and in Real Life;195
3.14.1;Evacuation Behaviour;195
3.14.2;Research Method;197
3.14.2.1;Research Aim, Focus and Selected Object;197
3.14.2.2;Test Scenario;197
3.14.2.3;Participants;198
3.14.2.4;Observations;199
3.14.2.5;BARTtrial;200
3.14.3;Case Studies;201
3.14.3.1;BARTtrial;201
3.14.3.1.1;BARTtrial participant 7082903;201
3.14.3.1.2;BARTtrial participant 7082904;201
3.14.3.1.3;BARTtrial participant 7082905;202
3.14.3.1.4;BARTtrial participant 7120401;202
3.14.3.1.5;BARTtrial participant 7120402;203
3.14.3.1.6;BARTtrial participant 7120403;203
3.14.3.1.7;BARTtrial participant 7120404;204
3.14.3.1.8;BARTtrial participant 7120405;204
3.14.3.2;Real Hotel;205
3.14.3.2.1;Real hotel participant 7101901;205
3.14.3.2.2;Real hotel participant 7101902;205
3.14.3.2.3;Real hotel participant 7101903;206
3.14.3.2.4;Real hotel participant 7101904;206
3.14.3.2.5;Real hotel participant 7101905;206
3.14.3.2.6;Real hotel participant 7101906;207
3.14.3.2.7;Real hotel participant 7101907;207
3.14.3.2.8;Real hotel participant 7101908;208
3.14.3.2.9;Real hotel participant 7102004;208
3.14.4;Comparison of Case Studies in BARTtrial and in Real Hotel;209
3.14.5;Conclusions and Further Work;211
3.14.6;References;212
3.15;Analysis of Empirical Trajectory Data of Pedestrians;214
3.15.1;Introduction;214
3.15.2;Low Density;214
3.15.2.1;Hybrid Approach;215
3.15.3;Medium-to-High Density;218
3.15.4;High Density;219
3.15.5;Social-Force Model;219
3.15.5.1;Improved Specifications of the Social-Force Model;222
3.15.6;Summary;224
3.15.7;References;224
3.16;Model-Based Real-Time Estimation of Building Occupancy During Emergency Egress;226
3.16.1;Introduction;227
3.16.2;Problem Definition;228
3.16.3;Sensor-Only Estimator;229
3.16.4;Model-Based Estimator for Building Egress Mode;230
3.16.4.1;People Movement Model;230
3.16.4.2;Sensor Models;232
3.16.4.3;Accounting for Constraints in the Estimate;232
3.16.4.4;Accounting for Constraints in the Covariance Estimate;233
3.16.5;Simulation Test Results;234
3.16.6;Conclusion;235
3.16.7;References;235
3.17;Experiments on Evacuation Dynamics for Different Classes of Situations;236
3.17.1;Introduction;236
3.17.2;Experiments;237
3.17.2.1;Description;237
3.17.2.2;Results;239
3.17.3;Conclusions;242
3.17.4;References;243
3.18;Prediction and Mitigation of Crush Conditions in Emergency Evacuations;244
3.18.1;Introduction;244
3.18.2;Definition of Crush Conditions;246
3.18.2.1;Spatial;246
3.18.2.2;Temporal;247
3.18.2.3;Perceptual and Cognitive Factors;247
3.18.2.4;Procedural;248
3.18.2.5;Summary;248
3.18.3;Case Studies;248
3.18.3.1;Rhode Island Nightclub;248
3.18.3.2;Gothenburg Dancehall;249
3.18.3.3;E2 Nightclub Incident;249
3.18.3.4;Hillsborough;250
3.18.4;Previous Work in the Field;250
3.18.4.1;Implicit;250
3.18.4.2;Explicit;251
3.18.5;Our Proposed Approach;252
3.18.5.1;Identification;252
3.18.5.2;Qualification;253
3.18.5.3;Quantification;254
3.18.5.4;Hybrid Approach;254
3.18.6;Benefits of Our Approach;255
3.18.7;Conclusion;256
3.18.8;References;256
3.19;Start Waves and Pedestrian Movement- An Experimental Study;258
3.19.1;Introduction and Experimental Setup;258
3.19.2;Results and Discussion;258
3.20;Clearance Time for Pedestrian Crossing;260
3.20.1;Purpose of the Study;260
3.20.2;Methodology;261
3.20.3;Results;262
3.20.3.1;Experiment Examples;264
3.20.4;Conclusions;265
3.20.5;References;266
3.21;Ship Evacuation-Guidelines, Simulation, Validation, and Acceptance Criteria;267
3.21.1;Ship Evacuation: History and Guidelines;267
3.21.1.1;Historical Background;267
3.21.1.2;Guidelines for Ship Evacuation;267
3.21.2;Simulation of Evacuation Processes on Passenger Ships;268
3.21.2.1;Influences on Ship Evacuation;268
3.21.2.2;The Procedure: Assembly and Embarkation Phase;268
3.21.2.3;ASET in the Case of a Ship;269
3.21.3;Calibration, Validation, and Verification;269
3.21.3.1;Calibration of Evacuation Models for Ships;269
3.21.3.2;Implementation and Verification;270
3.21.3.3;Validation of a Model Based on Simulation Results;271
3.21.3.4;Acceptance Criteria;271
3.21.4;Conclusions and Outlook;272
3.21.4.1;Safe Return to Port;272
3.21.4.2;Information Resources;272
3.21.5;Acknowledgements;272
3.21.6;References;272
3.22;Empirical Study of Pedestrians' Characteristics at Bottlenecks;273
3.22.1;Experimental Setup;274
3.22.2;Results;275
3.22.2.1;Density in Front of the Bottleneck;275
3.22.2.2;Density Inside the Bottleneck;275
3.22.3;Conclusions and Outlook;276
3.22.4;References;278
3.23;RFID Technology Applied for Validation of an Office Simulation Model;279
3.23.1;Introduction;279
3.23.2;Validation Approach;281
3.23.2.1;Criterion Variables;281
3.23.2.2;Goodness-of-Fit;282
3.23.3;Observation Method-RFID;283
3.23.4;Validation Results;284
3.23.4.1;Zone Utilisation;284
3.23.4.2;Employees;284
3.23.5;Discussion;285
3.23.6;References;285
3.24;Study on Crowd Flow Outside a Hall via Considering Velocity Distribution of Pedestrians;286
3.24.1;Introduction;286
3.24.2;Model;287
3.24.3;Simulation and Results;287
3.24.4;Conclusion;291
3.24.5;References;292
3.25;Analysis on the Propagation Speed of Pedestrian Reaction: Velocity of Starting Wave and Stopping Wave;293
3.25.1;Introduction;293
3.25.2;Experiments;294
3.25.2.1;Forthright Walking;294
3.25.2.2;Circular Walking;294
3.25.3;Cellular Automaton Simulations;296
3.25.4;Mean Field Analysis;297
3.25.5;Conclusion;298
3.25.6;References;298
4;Part II Simulation and Modeling;299
4.1;Toward Smooth Movement of Crowds;300
4.1.1;What is Jamology?;300
4.1.2;Modeling Crowds;301
4.1.2.1;Different Type of Models;301
4.1.2.2;Floor Field Model and its Extensions;302
4.1.2.2.1;Basic Update Rules;303
4.1.2.2.2;Resolution of Conflicts;304
4.1.2.2.3;Calculation of the Static Field in Arbitrary Geometries;304
4.1.2.2.4;Contraction at a Wide Exit;306
4.1.2.2.5;Parameters and Their Physical Relevance;307
4.1.2.2.6;Force Field;308
4.1.3;Smooth Movement;309
4.1.3.1;Inertia Effect;309
4.1.3.2;Anticipation;309
4.1.3.3;Obstacles;311
4.1.3.4;Deterministic Evacuation;312
4.1.4;Concluding Discussions;313
4.1.5;References;314
4.2;Modeling Evacuees' Exit Selection with Best Response Dynamics;316
4.2.1;Introduction;316
4.2.2;The Model and a Game Theoretic Formulation;317
4.2.2.1;An N-Player Game;318
4.2.2.2;Exit Selection Model;318
4.2.2.3;Mathematical Formulation of the Model;319
4.2.2.4;Additional Features of the Model;321
4.2.3;Computational Results;322
4.2.4;Discussion;325
4.2.5;Acknowledgements;325
4.2.6;References;325
4.3;Front-to-Back Communication in a Microscopic Crowd Model;327
4.3.1;Introduction;327
4.3.2;Characterizing Front-to-Back Communication;328
4.3.3;Modeling Front-to-Back Communication;330
4.3.3.1;The Floor Field Model;330
4.3.3.2;The Swarm Force Model;331
4.3.3.3;Front-to-Back Communication in the Swarm Force Model;332
4.3.4;Laboratory Scenario;333
4.3.5;Who Concert Disaster Scenario;335
4.3.5.1;Reconstructing the Plaza at Riverside Coliseum;336
4.3.5.2;Analysis of the Disaster;337
4.3.6;Conclusion;339
4.3.7;References;340
4.4;Comparison of Various Methods for the Calculation of the Distance Potential Field;341
4.4.1;Introduction;341
4.4.2;Methods for the Calculation of a Distance Potential Field;342
4.4.2.1;Short Mathematical Parenthesis: Vector Norms;342
4.4.2.2;Flood Fill Methods;342
4.4.2.3;Manhattan Metric;342
4.4.2.4;Chessboard Metric;343
4.4.2.5;Variant 1: Combination of Manhattan and Chessboard;343
4.4.2.6;Variant 2: 2 over Corners;344
4.4.2.7;Variant 3: Larger Neighborhoods;345
4.4.2.8;Dijkstra's Algorithm on a Visibility Graph;345
4.4.2.9;Ray Casting;345
4.4.2.10;Other Methods of Error Reduction;346
4.4.3;Analytical Considerations;346
4.4.3.1;Errors for Manhattan and Chessboard Metric;346
4.4.3.2;Error for Variant 1 (Combination);347
4.4.3.3;Error for Variant 2 (2 over Corners);348
4.4.4;Computation Times;349
4.4.4.1;Geometries;349
4.4.4.2;Results;349
4.4.5;Conclusions;351
4.4.6;Acknowledgements;351
4.4.7;References;352
4.5;Agent-Based Simulation of Evacuation: An Office Building Case Study;353
4.5.1;Introduction;353
4.5.2;Evacuation Data Analysis;354
4.5.2.1;Evacuation Description;354
4.5.2.2;Analysis Results;355
4.5.2.2.1;Velocity vs. Density;355
4.5.2.2.2;Cumulative Characteristics of Egress;357
4.5.2.2.3;People Behavior;358
4.5.3;Simulation Model;359
4.5.4;Graph Decomposition;360
4.5.5;Conclusion;362
4.5.6;Acknowledgements;362
4.5.7;References;363
4.6;A Genetic Algorithm Module for Spatial Optimization in Pedestrian Simulation;364
4.6.1;Introduction;365
4.6.1.1;Initial Situation;365
4.6.1.2;Objectives;366
4.6.1.3;Requirements;366
4.6.2;Genetic Algorithms (GA);367
4.6.2.1;General Definitions;367
4.6.2.2;The Evolutionary Model;367
4.6.2.3;Use of GA Framework;367
4.6.3;Realization of the Optimization Module;368
4.6.3.1;Data Structure;368
4.6.3.2;Mapping;369
4.6.3.3;Assessment Criteria;370
4.6.3.4;Graphical User Interface (GUI);371
4.6.3.4.1;Visualization;371
4.6.3.4.2;Interaction;372
4.6.3.4.3;Managing Plans;372
4.6.3.5;Performance;373
4.6.3.6;Tests;373
4.6.4;Results;374
4.6.5;Outlook;374
4.6.6;Acknowledgements;374
4.6.7;References;375
4.7;Opinion Formation and Propagation Induced by Pedestrian Flow;376
4.7.1;Introduction;376
4.7.2;Model;378
4.7.3;Simulation and Analysis;380
4.7.4;Conclusion;382
4.7.5;Acknowledgements;383
4.7.6;References;384
4.8;Passenger Dynamics at Airport Terminal Environment;385
4.8.1;Introduction;385
4.8.1.1;Trends and Challenges at Airports;385
4.8.1.2;Status Quo of Passenger Behavior;387
4.8.2;Airport Environment;389
4.8.3;Passenger Tracking Tool;391
4.8.4;Results;393
4.8.4.1;Gender;394
4.8.4.2;Travel Purpose-Business vs. Leisure;394
4.8.4.3;Groups;395
4.8.4.4;Baggage;396
4.8.5;Conclusion;397
4.8.6;Outlook;398
4.8.7;Acknowledgements;399
4.8.8;References;399
4.9;Application Modes of Egress Simulation;401
4.9.1;Introduction;401
4.9.2;People Movement System (ICE);402
4.9.3;Six Degrees of Simulation;403
4.9.3.1;Naïve Mode;404
4.9.3.2;Operational Mode;405
4.9.3.3;Predictive Mode;406
4.9.3.4;Engineered Mode;408
4.9.3.5;Interactive Mode;409
4.9.3.6;Real-Time Mode;410
4.9.4;Discussion;411
4.9.5;Conclusion;412
4.9.6;References;413
4.10;Investigating the Impact of Aircraft Exit Availability on Egress Time Using Computer Simulation;414
4.10.1;Introduction;414
4.10.2;The AASK Database;415
4.10.3;The airEXODUS Evacuation Model;416
4.10.4;Exit Availability Analysis Conducted Using AASK;417
4.10.5;Evacuation Modelling Analysis;419
4.10.5.1;The Geometry, Model Parameters and Scenarios;419
4.10.5.2;Evacuation Simulation Results;420
4.10.6;Conclusions;425
4.10.7;References;426
4.11;Bounded Rationality Choice Model Incorporating Attribute Threshold, Mental Effort, and Risk Attitude: Illustration to Pedestrian Walking Direction Choice Decision in Shopping Streets;427
4.11.1;Introduction;427
4.11.2;Conceptual framework;429
4.11.2.1;Preference Structure;429
4.11.2.2;Decision Heuristics;430
4.11.2.3;Choice of Heuristics;432
4.11.3;Illustration;434
4.11.3.1;Data;434
4.11.3.2;Operationalization;435
4.11.3.3;Model Estimation;436
4.11.4;Conclusion;438
4.11.5;References;439
4.12;A SCA-Based Model for Open Crowd Aggregation;440
4.12.1;Introduction;440
4.12.2;Related Works;441
4.12.2.1;Force-Based Models;441
4.12.2.2;CA-Based Models;442
4.12.2.3;MAS-Based Models;442
4.12.3;SCA Approach to Pedestrian Dynamics;443
4.12.4;Aggregation in Open Crowds;444
4.12.5;Conclusion and Future Works;448
4.12.6;References;449
4.13;Hardware Implementation of a Crowd Evacuation Model Based on Cellular Automata;451
4.13.1;Introduction;451
4.13.2;Cellular Automata;453
4.13.3;Basic Characteristics of the Evacuation Model;453
4.13.4;Implementation of the CA Model;455
4.13.5;Simulation Results;460
4.13.6;Conclusions;462
4.13.7;References;462
4.14;Applying a Discrete Event System Approach to Problems of Collective Motion in Emergency Situations;464
4.14.1;Introduction;464
4.14.2;Discrete Event Systems Modeling with Petri Nets;466
4.14.2.1;DES Basic Principles;466
4.14.2.2;Fundamental Notations of Petri Nets;467
4.14.3;Petri Net Application to Egress Dynamics;469
4.14.3.1;PN Modules for Rooms and Gateways;469
4.14.3.2;Remarks About PN Generalization and Timing;472
4.14.4;The Case Study;473
4.14.5;Conclusion and Future Developments;475
4.14.6;Acknowledgements;475
4.14.7;References;475
4.15;SIMULEM: Introducing Goal Oriented Behaviours in Crowd Simulation;477
4.15.1;Introduction;477
4.15.2;Goal Oriented Behavioural Model;479
4.15.2.1;Model Overview;479
4.15.2.2;Interaction Concepts;480
4.15.3;Simulation Architecture;482
4.15.3.1;Simulation Software Upgrades;482
4.15.3.2;Simulation Configuration;483
4.15.3.3;Simulation Run;485
4.15.3.4;Results Analysis;486
4.15.4;Results;486
4.15.5;Conclusion and Future Work;487
4.15.6;Acknowledgements;488
4.15.7;References;488
4.16;Conflicts at an Exit in Pedestrian Dynamics;489
4.16.1;Introduction;489
4.16.2;Floor Field Model;490
4.16.2.1;Floor Field;490
4.16.2.2;Conflict Resolution and Friction;491
4.16.3;Friction Function;492
4.16.3.1;Introduction of the Friction Function;492
4.16.3.2;Average Pedestrian Outflow Through an Exit;493
4.16.4;Experiments;495
4.16.5;Comparison Between the Experiment and the Theory;497
4.16.6;The Effect of an Obstacle;498
4.16.7;Conclusion;499
4.16.8;Acknowledgements;500
4.16.9;References;500
4.17;Improving Pedestrian Dynamics Modeling Using Fuzzy Logic;501
4.17.1;Introduction;502
4.17.1.1;Conventional vs Pattern Recognition PDR Navigation;502
4.17.1.2;State of the Art Solutions in Gait Analysis;502
4.17.2;Gait Analysis;503
4.17.3;Step Type Classification;504
4.17.4;Stride Length Computation;505
4.17.5;Tests and Results;506
4.17.6;Conclusion;506
4.17.7;References;506
4.18;Modeling the Link Volume Counts as a Function of Temporally Dependent OD-Flows;507
4.18.1;Introduction;507
4.18.2;Data Sets;508
4.18.3;The Proposed Model;509
4.18.4;Discussion of the Model;511
4.18.5;References;512
4.19;Effect of Subconscious Behavior on Pedestrian Counterflow in a Lattice Gas Model Under Open Boundary Conditions;514
4.19.1;Introduction;514
4.19.2;Outline of Model;515
4.19.3;Simulation Results and Discussions;516
4.19.4;Conclusions;518
4.19.5;References;519
4.20;Hand-Calculation Methods for Evacuation Calculation-Last Chance for an Old-Fashioned Approach or a Real Alternative to Microscopic Simulation Tools?;520
4.20.1;Analysis of a High-Rise Building with Microscopic and Macroscopic Models;520
4.20.1.1;Results of Commercial Software Tools;520
4.20.1.2;Results of Macroscopic Hand-Calculation Methods;521
4.20.2;Analysis of a Theoretical School Building with Microscopic and Macroscopic Models;522
4.20.2.1;Results of Commercial Software Tools;523
4.20.2.2;Results of Macroscopic Hand-Calculation Methods;523
4.20.3;Conclusion;524
4.20.4;References;525
4.21;Adding Higher Intelligent Functions to Pedestrian Agent Model;526
4.21.1;Introduction;526
4.21.2;Pedestrian Modeling Platform for Hybrid Space Representation System;527
4.21.2.1;Introducing Artisoc;527
4.21.3;ASPF(Agent Simulator of Pedestrian Flow) ver.4-Implementation of Autonomous Pedestrian Agent;528
4.21.4;Concluding Remarks-ASSA Project as Further Study;531
4.21.5;References;532
4.22;"FlowTech" and "EvaTech": Two Computer-Simulation Methods for Evacuation Calculation;533
4.22.1;"FlowTech". Flow Movement Modeling;533
4.22.1.1;Workflow with FlowTech;534
4.22.1.2;Evacuation Simulation Example: WTC1;536
4.22.1.3;Future Work;536
4.22.2;"EvaTech". Individual Movement Modeling;536
4.22.2.1;Pedestrian Movement;538
4.22.2.2;Human Behavior;538
4.22.2.3;EvaTech Model Validation;539
4.22.2.4;Future Work;540
4.22.3;References;540
4.23;Large Scale Microscopic Evacuation Simulation;542
4.23.1;Introduction;542
4.23.2;Simulation Framework;543
4.23.3;Results;545
4.23.4;Conclusions;546
4.23.5;References;547
4.24;Numerical Optimisation Techniques Applied to Evacuation Analysis;549
4.24.1;Introduction;549
4.24.2;The Methodology;550
4.24.3;Demonstration Problem;551
4.24.4;The Solution;552
4.24.4.1;The Design Variables;552
4.24.4.2;Results and Discussion;553
4.24.5;Concluding Comments;554
4.24.6;Acknowledgements;554
4.24.7;References;554
4.25;A Multi-Method Approach to the Interpretation of Pedestrian Spatio-Temporal Behaviour;556
4.25.1;Introduction;556
4.25.2;Methodology;557
4.25.3;Heuristic Phase;558
4.25.4;Initial Results;559
4.25.4.1;Example Results Based on Motion Data;559
4.25.5;Conclusion;561
4.25.6;References;561
4.26;The Microscopic Model and the Panicking Ball-Bearing;562
4.26.1;Introduction;562
4.26.2;Panic;563
4.26.3;Panic in Microscopic Models;563
4.26.4;Microscopic Human Factors;564
4.26.5;Microscopic Human Factors in the Floor Field Model;565
4.26.6;Conclusion;567
4.26.7;References;568
4.27;Design of Decision Rules for Crowd Controlling Using Macroscopic Pedestrian Flow Simulation;569
4.27.1;Introduction;569
4.27.2;Control Concept;570
4.27.3;Macroscopic Simulation Model;571
4.27.4;Measurement Error Characteristics;572
4.27.5;Design of Decision Rules;573
4.27.6;Conclusion;574
4.27.7;References;574
4.28;3-Tier Architecture for Pedestrian Agent in Crowd Simulation;576
4.28.1;Introduction;576
4.28.2;How the Issue Raised;577
4.28.2.1;Conflicts in Path Planning;577
4.28.2.2;Realistic Movement;578
4.28.2.3;Long-Distance Pathfinding;578
4.28.3;Structure of the Architecture;579
4.28.3.1;Event Flow Control Tier;579
4.28.3.2;Navigation Tier;580
4.28.3.3;Pedestrian Dynamics Tier;582
4.28.4;Computer Experiments;583
4.28.4.1;Finger Effect;583
4.28.4.2;Edge Effect;583
4.28.4.3;Case Study with "Dead End";584
4.28.5;Conclusions;584
4.28.6;References;585
4.29;Optimising Vessel Layout Using Human Factors Simulation;587
4.29.1;Introduction;587
4.29.2;Methodology for Assessing Human Factors Performance;588
4.29.3;The Components of the Human Performance Metric;588
4.29.3.1;Evaluation Scenarios;589
4.29.3.2;Functional Groups;589
4.29.3.3;Performance Measures;589
4.29.4;Defining the Human Performance Metric;589
4.29.5;Demonstration Application of the HPM;590
4.29.5.1;The Geometry;590
4.29.5.2;The Scenarios;590
4.29.5.3;The Simulation Software;591
4.29.5.4;Results and Analysis;591
4.29.6;Concluding Comments;593
4.29.7;References;593
4.30;Agent-Based Animated Simulation of Mass Egress Following an Improvised Explosive Device (IED) Attack;594
4.30.1;Venues Modeled and Software Used;594
4.30.2;Models' Features;595
4.30.3;Model Results;595
4.30.4;Models' Advantages and Limitations;596
4.30.5;Conclusions;598
4.30.6;References;598
4.31;A Novel Kinetic Model to Simulate Evacuation Dynamics;599
4.31.1;Introduction;599
4.31.2;Evacuation Dynamics Model;600
4.31.2.1;Problem and Model Formulation Description;600
4.31.2.2;Theoretical Model Formulation: The Kinetic Model of Evacuation;602
4.31.3;Model Simulation Studies and Comparison Results;604
4.31.4;Conclusion;605
4.31.5;Acknowledgements;605
4.31.6;References;605
4.32;Egress Route Choice Modelling-Concepts and Applications;607
4.32.1;Introduction;607
4.32.2;Egress Route Choice Mechanisms Implemented in ASERI;608
4.32.3;Applications;612
4.32.4;References;613
4.33;Architectural Cue Model in Evacuation Simulation for Underground Space;614
4.33.1;Introduction;614
4.33.2;Architectural Cue Model for Underground Space Evacuation;616
4.33.3;Research Method;617
4.33.3.1;CAVE-Based Conjoint Analysis;617
4.33.3.2;Attributes of the Architectural Cues;618
4.33.3.3;The Design of Scenes with Paired Cues;619
4.33.3.4;Encoding and Decoding;619
4.33.4;Experiment;620
4.33.4.1;The Experiment Facilities;621
4.33.4.2;The Experiment Procedure;621
4.33.5;Analyzes;622
4.33.5.1;The Model Performance;623
4.33.5.2;The Attributes of Architectural Cues;623
4.33.5.3;Preference Between Stair and Exit;626
4.33.6;Conclusions;626
4.33.7;Outlook;626
4.33.8;References;627
4.34;Integrating Strategies in Numerical Modelling of Crowd Motion;628
4.34.1;Introduction;628
4.34.2;From Spontaneous to Actual Velocity;628
4.34.2.1;Notations;629
4.34.2.2;Handling of Contacts;629
4.34.3;Examples of Spontaneous Velocity;629
4.34.3.1;Shortest Path;629
4.34.3.2;Individual Strategies;630
4.34.4;Numerical Results;631
4.34.5;References;633
4.35;Small-Grid Analysis of Evacuation Processes with a Lattice Gas Model for Mixed Pedestrian Dynamics;634
4.35.1;Introduction;634
4.35.2;Simulation and Results;635
4.35.3;Conclusions;638
4.35.4;References;639
4.36;Evacuation Simulation and Human Behaviour Models in Tall Buildings;640
4.36.1;Introduction;640
4.36.2;Building Traffic Simulator;641
4.36.2.1;Passenger Model;641
4.36.2.2;Staircase Model;641
4.36.2.3;Elevator Model;642
4.36.3;Human Behaviour Model for Vertical Movement;642
4.36.3.1;Macroscopic Routing Model;642
4.36.3.2;Microscopic Reaction Models;643
4.36.4;World Trade Centre Evacuation;644
4.36.5;References;645
4.37;Proof of Evacuation Routes and Safety Exits: Time Data as the Main Criteria for the Evaluation of Escape Routes and Safety Exits?;646
4.37.1;Settings;646
4.37.1.1;Evacuation Times;646
4.37.1.2;Investigated Study Cases;647
4.37.1.3;Simulation Models;647
4.37.2;Outcomes;648
4.37.2.1;Evacuation Times;648
4.37.2.2;Exit Width;649
4.37.2.3;Path Length;649
4.37.3;Conclusions;650
4.37.4;References;650
4.38;Dependence of Modelled Evacuation Times on Key Parameters and Interactions;653
4.38.1;Introduction;653
4.38.2;Methods;654
4.38.2.1;Evacuation of a Single Rectangular Retail Enclosure (2000 m2);654
4.38.2.2;Multi-Enclosure Building (up to 10-Storeys Served Office);655
4.38.3;Results;656
4.38.3.1;Retail Enclosure Evacuations;656
4.38.3.2;Results: Multi-Storey Evacuation Simulations and Experiments Simulations;658
4.38.3.2.1;Validation-Unannounced Evacuation Experiments;659
4.38.4;Conclusions;660
4.38.4.1;Conclusions from Single Enclosure Evacuations;660
4.38.4.2;Conclusions from Multi-Storey Building Evacuations;660
4.38.5;References;660
4.39;A Modification of the Social Force Model by Foresight;662
4.39.1;Introduction;662
4.39.2;Single Lane Walking;663
4.39.2.1;Binary Interactions from Single Lane Following;664
4.39.2.2;Single Lane Head-on Collisions;664
4.39.3;2D Walking;666
4.39.4;Conclusions;666
4.39.5;References;667
4.40;Models for Crowd Movement and Egress Simulation;668
4.40.1;Some General Remarks;668
4.40.2;Model Classification;669
4.40.3;List of Models;670
4.40.4;Existing Model Reviews;670
4.40.5;The Wiki Approach;672
4.40.6;Internet Resources;672
4.40.7;Acknowledgements;673
4.40.8;References;673
4.41;Modelling Pedestrian Escalator Behaviour;674
4.41.1;Introduction;674
4.41.2;Data Collection;675
4.41.3;Escalator Model;675
4.41.3.1;Microscopic Escalator Model;675
4.41.4;Escalator Model Evacuation Demonstration;676
4.41.4.1;Evacuation Results;677
4.41.5;Concluding Comments;679
4.41.6;References;680
4.42;Introducing a Coupled Model for Simulating Crowd Behaviour;681
4.42.1;Context of Our Model;681
4.42.2;Perceiving-Acting Model;681
4.42.3;The Model Process;683
4.42.3.1;A Perception Model;683
4.42.3.2;A Planning Model;684
4.42.3.2.1;Target-Achievement and Obstacle-Avoidance as Local Navigation Model;685
4.42.3.3;Stress-Sensing Model;686
4.42.4;Conclusions and Outlook;686
4.42.4.1;Future Work;687
4.42.5;Acknowledgements;687
4.42.6;References;687
4.43;Evacuation Modelling of Fire Scenarios in Passenger Trains;688
4.43.1;Introduction;688
4.43.2;Evacuation Cases;689
4.43.3;Input Data;690
4.43.4;Evacuation Results;691
4.43.4.1;Movement Inside the Train;691
4.43.4.2;Evacuation of the Trains;692
4.43.5;Conclusions;693
4.43.6;References;694
4.44;Pedestrian Dynamics with Event-Driven Simulation;695
4.44.1;Introduction;695
4.44.2;Social-Force Models;695
4.44.2.1;General Considerations;695
4.44.2.2;Simplified One-Dimensional Realization;696
4.44.3;Motivation for Event-Driven Simulation;697
4.44.4;Event-Driven Simulation with Velocity-Adaptation;697
4.44.5;Results;699
4.44.6;Discussion and Summary;700
4.44.7;References;700
5;Part III Psychology;701
5.1;The Need for Behavioral Theory in Evacuation Modeling;702
5.1.1;Introduction;702
5.1.2;"Behavioral Facts";703
5.1.3;Building Evacuation Models;705
5.1.3.1;Behavioral Technique 1: The Behavior Is Defined Entirely by the User;705
5.1.3.2;Behavioral Technique 2: The Behavior Is Simulated Based on a Specific Condition (if-then);706
5.1.3.3;Behavioral Technique 3: The Behavior Is Simulated Based on Multiple Factors of Influence;707
5.1.3.4;Summary;708
5.1.4;Benefits of Behavioral Theory;709
5.1.5;Conclusion;710
5.1.6;References;711
5.2;NO_PANIC. "Escape and Panic in Buildings"-Architectural Basic Research in the Context of Security and Safety Research;714
5.2.1;Motivation;714
5.2.2;The Five Dimensions of Architecture;716
5.2.3;Qualities vs. Quantities;717
5.2.4;Signage vs. Space;718
5.2.5;Towards Architectural Solutions that Support Egress;718
5.2.5.1;Avoiding Delays in Egress;719
5.2.5.2;Avoiding Dualities;719
5.2.5.3;Architectural Elements for Managing Egress;721
5.2.6;Conclusions;722
5.2.7;References;723
5.3;Was It Panic? An Overview About Mass-Emergencies and Their Origins All Over the World for Recent Years;724
5.3.1;Introduction;724
5.3.2;What Is Panic?;725
5.3.2.1;Different Definitions of Panic or Panic Attack;725
5.3.3;Definitions of Crush and Stampede;727
5.3.3.1;Definitions Used in this Article;727
5.3.3.2;Panic, Stampede and Crush in the Media;728
5.3.4;Experiments on Panic or Decision-Making Processes;728
5.3.4.1;Discussion of the Experiments Performed by French and Mintz;729
5.3.5;Different Mass-Emergencies in the Case of "Panic";730
5.3.6;Conclusions;734
5.3.7;References;735
5.4;Hierarchical Structure of the Mass and Group-Level Behaviors in Urban Rail Transfer Stations;737
5.4.1;Introduction;737
5.4.2;Hierarchical Structure of URT Station Space, Passenger Service Network and Mass;738
5.4.2.1;Passenger Organization Processes;738
5.4.2.2;Hierarchical Structure of URT Stations;739
5.4.2.3;Passenger Service Network ;739
5.4.2.4;The Hierarchical Structure of the Mass;741
5.4.3;Analysis of the Features and Behaviors of Individuals and Groups;742
5.4.3.1;Individuals;742
5.4.3.1.1;(1) Human Physical Features;742
5.4.3.1.2;(2) Environmental Features;742
5.4.3.1.3;(3) Psychological and Sociological Features;742
5.4.3.1.4;(4) Individual Behaviors;743
5.4.3.2;Groups;744
5.4.3.2.1;Features of Groups;744
5.4.3.2.2;(1) Composition;744
5.4.3.2.3;(2) Relationships Within a Group;745
5.4.3.2.4;(3) Shapes and Areas;745
5.4.3.2.5;(4) Mobility;745
5.4.3.2.6;Behaviors of Groups;745
5.4.3.2.7;(1) Interactions of Members;745
5.4.3.2.8;(2) Interactions of Groups;746
5.4.3.2.9;The Impacts of Groups on the Crowd;747
5.4.3.2.10;(1) The Form and Mobility of Groups Make the Crowd Uneven;747
5.4.3.2.11;(2) Groups Are More Powerful than Individuals in Conflicts;747
5.4.3.2.12;(3) Breaking and Regrouping of Groups Disturb the Smooth Flow;747
5.4.4;Process Modeling of the Mass and Simulation Framework Based on Group Level Behaviors ;748
5.4.4.1;Process Modeling of the Mass;748
5.4.4.1.1;(1) Information Exchanging Space and Information Transmitting;749
5.4.4.1.2;(2) Information Updating and Behaviors of All Hierarchies;749
5.4.4.2;URT Station Mass Movement Simulation Framework;750
5.4.4.2.1;(1) Database;750
5.4.4.2.2;(2) Models;750
5.4.4.2.3;(3) Modules;751
5.4.5;Discussion;751
5.4.6;Acknowledgements;752
5.4.7;References;752
5.5;The Use of a Structure and Its Influence on Evacuation Behavior;753
5.5.1;Introduction;753
5.5.2;Information Carried by the Individual;753
5.5.3;Procedures Employed;754
5.5.4;Addressing the Situation;756
5.5.5;Concluding Remarks;758
5.5.6;References;758
6;Part IV Miscellaneous;759
6.1;Inhalation Injury of Lung and Heart After Inhalation of Toxic Substances;760
6.1.1;Introduction;760
6.1.2;Toxic Agents;761
6.1.3;Irritant Effects of Inhalant Noxious Agents;762
6.1.4;Ambient Air Pollution;763
6.1.5;Acute Smoke Injury;765
6.1.6;Clinical Manifestations;765
6.1.7;Medical Problems with Pedestrian Evacuation;766
6.1.8;Medical Problems in Firefighters;766
6.1.9;Treatment of Smoke Inhalation;767
6.1.10;Conclusion;767
6.1.11;References;768
6.2;Quantitative Comparison of International Design Standards of Escape Routes in Assembly Buildings;769
6.2.1;Introduction;769
6.2.2;General Approach;770
6.2.3;Flow Capacity of Exits;772
6.2.4;Comparison of Raw Data;773
6.2.4.1;Minimum Width of Exit Doors;773
6.2.4.2;Design Occupant Load;773
6.2.4.3;Increase of Exit Width per Occupant;774
6.2.5;Results;774
6.2.5.1;Exit Width Correlated with Assembly Room Area;774
6.2.5.2;Travel Times Correlated with Assembly Room Area at Design Occupant Density;775
6.2.5.3;Travel Times Correlated with Assembly Room Area at Normalized Occupant Density of 4 p/m2;776
6.2.6;Some Further Differences in the Codes;776
6.2.7;Discussion;777
6.2.8;Conclusions;778
6.2.9;Acknowledgements;778
6.2.10;References;779
6.3;Visualizing the Human Form for Simulation and Planning;780
6.3.1;Introduction;780
6.3.2;Background;781
6.3.3;Elaboration;783
6.3.3.1;Discussion of the Criteria in the Taxonomy;783
6.3.3.2;Dependencies Between Criteria in the Taxonomy;783
6.3.4;Conclusion;785
6.3.5;References;786
6.4;A Real-Time Pedestrian Animation System;787
6.4.1;Introduction;787
6.4.2;System Overview and Levels of Processing;788
6.4.3;Skeletal Animation Generation;789
6.4.4;Behavior Model Integration;790
6.4.5;Implementation and Results;791
6.4.6;Conclusion;792
6.4.7;References;792
6.5;Modeling of Escape Routes According to Occupancy, Economy, and Level of Safety in Slovak Republic;794
6.5.1;Building Description;794
6.5.2;Requirements for the Escape Routes;795
6.5.2.1;Calculations;795
6.5.3;Conclusion;797
6.5.4;References;798
7;List of Participants;799