Ruiz / Hedegaard Thomsen / Trajano Hydrothermal Processing in Biorefineries

Production of Bioethanol and High Added-Value Compounds of Second and Third Generation Biomass
1. Auflage 2017
ISBN: 978-3-319-56457-9
Verlag: Springer Nature Switzerland
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, 524 Seiten

The biorefinery, integration of processes and technologies for biomass conversion, demands efficient utilization of all components. Hydrothermal processing is a potential clean technology to convert raw materials such as lignocellulosic and aquatic biomass into bioenergy and high added-value compounds. This book aims to show fundamental concepts and key technological developments that enabled industrial application of hydrothermal processing.  The scope of this book is primarily for scientists working in the biorefinery field as well as engineers from industry and potential investors in biofuels. Therefore, the information in this book will provide an overview of this technology applied to lignocellulosic materials and aquatic biomass, and especially new knowledge. Critically, this book brings together experts in the application of hydrothermal processes on lignocellulosic and aquatic biomass.

Dr. Héctor A. Ruiz obtained his Ph.D in Chemical and Biological Engineering from Centre of Biological Engineering at the University of Minho, Portugal in 2011. He then spent 1 year as a postdoctoral researcher at University of Minho (Portugal) and University of Vigo (Spain) under the supervision of Prof. José A. Teixeira and Prof. Juan C. Parajó (2012). He is currently Full Professor in the School of Chemistry at the Autonomous University of Coahuila and founder of the Biorefinery Group in the Food Research Department, Saltillo, Coahuila, Mexico and leader of the pretreatment step in the Cluster of Bioalcohols in the Mexican Centre for Innovation in Bioenergy (Cemie-Bio), Mexico. His research has targeted hydrothermal processing (autohydrolysis) and biorefinery strategies for the production high added-value compounds and bioethanol from lignocellulosic, micro - and macroalgal biomass. Dr. Ruiz has conducted several research stays and technical visits: at the Federal University of Sergipe (Brazil), Brazilian Bioethanol Science and Technology Laboratory (CTBE, Brazil), in the Chemical and Biological Engineering Department at the University of British Columbia (Canada), CIEMAT- Renewable Energy Division, Biofuels Unit (Spain), University of Jaén (Spain), Sadar Swaran Singh National Institute of Bio-Energy (India), Tokyo Institute of Technology (Japan).He has authored or co-authored several research publications with an H factor of 14 (Google Scholar Citations). Currently, Dr. Ruiz is Editor-in-Chief of Bioethanol Journal (De Gruyter Open, since 2014), Associate Editor of BioEnergy Research Journal (Springer, since 2015) and participates in the Editorial Advisory Board of the Industrial Crops and Products (Elsevier, since 2013) and Biofuel Research Journal. Dr. Ruiz was awarded with the Prize 'Dr. Carlos Casas Campillo' of the Mexican Society of Biotechnology and Bioengineering in 2016. This award aims to give recognition and encourage young researchers for their contribution to the development of biotechnology and bioengineering in Mexico.Dr. Mette Hedegaard Thomsen, PhD, Assistant Professor, has worked with utilization of waste products and aquatic biomass for bio-fuels and green chemicals for more than 10 years. Dr. Thomsen has worked closely with European, American, and Middle Eastern industry to develop and scale up biorefinery processes, and has PI experience from several national research and international projects. Dr. Thomsen is author and co-author of more than 60 scientific papers including 38 ISI journal papers, five book chapters, and several conference contributions in areas related mainly to bio-energy and bio-chemicals production. Major contributions in the field of biorefineries: i) Application of amylolytic lactic acid bacteria in production of bio-polymers, ii) Part of team that developed acidification process for grass juice as substrate to produce l-lysine, iii) Part of team that developed demonstration scale hydrothermal treatment of wheat straw, iv) Chemical characterization and development of conversion processes for many different biomasses, v) Progress in biomass to ethanol fermentation technology, and vi) Isolation and application of natural antibiotics.Dr. Heather L. Trajano is an Assistant Professor in Chemical and Biological Engineering at the University of British Columbia in Vancouver, Canada.  She obtained her Ph.D. in Chemical Engineering at the University of California Riverside.  Dr. Trajano's focus is to explore and harness fundamental knowledge of biomass fractionation and conversion for maximum economic and environmental benefit.  Specific research interests include i) Fundamentals of biomass deconstruction to separate carbohydrates from lignin, ii) Recovery and purification of extractives and iii) Heterogeneous catalysis for chemical production.  Dr. Trajano searches for biorefining opportunities that complement existing forestry operations by utilizing waste streams and by-products in collaboration with leading Canadian forestry companies.  Dr. Trajano has published numerous articles on biomass pretreatment and enzymatic hydrolysis in leading biorefining journals including: Biotechnology and Bioengineering, Biotechnology for Biofuels, Bioresource Technology, and Biofuels, Bioproducts and Biorefining.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Ruiz, Héctor A.

Hedegaard Thomsen, Mette

Trajano, Heather L.

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Preface and Editorial;5
2;Acknowledgments;9
3;About This Book;10
4;Contents;11
5;Contributors;14
6;About the Authors;20
7;Chapter 1: How the Severity Factor in Biomass Hydrolysis Came About;23
8;Chapter 2: Effect of Hydrothermal Pretreatment on Lignin and Antioxidant Activity;26
8.1;2.1 Introduction;26
8.2;2.2 Effect of Treatment Conditions in Lignin Solubilization;27
8.3;2.3 Phenolic Composition of Autohydrolysis Liquors from LCM;31
8.4;2.4 Antioxidant Activity;47
8.4.1;2.4.1 Relevance and Type of Antioxidants;47
8.4.2;2.4.2 Mechanism of Action;48
8.4.3;2.4.3 Methodologies to Evaluate the Antioxidant Capacity;48
8.4.3.1;2.4.3.1 Chemical-Based Assays;49
8.4.3.2;2.4.3.2 Measurement of Antioxidant Activity in Biological Model Systems;51
8.4.4;2.4.4 Natural Antioxidants;51
8.5;2.5 Examples of Crude Antioxidant Extracts from Autohydrolysis of LCM;52
8.6;2.6 Conclusions and Future Perspectives;57
8.7;References;57
9;Chapter 3: Effect of Hydrothermal Processing on Hemicellulose Structure;65
9.1;3.1 Introduction;66
9.2;3.2 Hemicellulose Structure;68
9.2.1;3.2.1 Hardwood Hemicelluloses;69
9.2.1.1;3.2.1.1 Glucuronoxylan;69
9.2.1.2;3.2.1.2 Glucomannan;72
9.2.1.3;3.2.1.3 Xyloglucan;72
9.2.2;3.2.2 Softwood Hemicelluloses;73
9.2.2.1;3.2.2.1 Galactoglucomannans;73
9.2.2.2;3.2.2.2 Arabinoglucuronoxylan;73
9.2.2.3;3.2.2.3 Arabinogalactan;73
9.2.3;3.2.3 Gramineae Hemicelluloses;74
9.2.3.1;3.2.3.1 Arabinoxylan;74
9.2.3.2;3.2.3.2 beta-(13, 14)-Glucans;75
9.2.3.3;3.2.3.3 Homoxylan;75
9.3;3.3 Fundamentals of the Hydrothermal Processing of Lignocellulose;76
9.3.1;3.3.1 Characteristics of Hydrothermal Processing;76
9.3.1.1;3.3.1.1 Autohydrolysis/Hot Water Pretreatment;76
9.3.1.2;3.3.1.2 Steam Explosion;78
9.3.2;3.3.2 Reactions and Mechanisms;80
9.3.3;3.3.3 Severity Factor;83
9.3.4;3.3.4 Kinetic Models of Hemicellulose Hydrolysis;84
9.3.4.1;3.3.4.1 Pseudohomogeneous Kinetic Models;84
9.3.4.2;3.3.4.2 Kinetic Models with Fast- and Slow-Reacting Xylan;84
9.3.4.3;3.3.4.3 Kinetic Models Including Oligomer Concentrations;85
9.3.4.4;3.3.4.4 Kinetic Models Including Intermediates;86
9.4;3.4 Analysis and Structural Characterization of Hemicelluloses Before and After Hydrothermal Processing;86
9.4.1;3.4.1 Chromatographic Analysis;86
9.4.1.1;3.4.1.1 HPAEC;86
9.4.1.2;3.4.1.2 HPLC;89
9.4.1.3;3.4.1.3 GPC;90
9.4.1.4;3.4.1.4 MALDI-TOF MS;91
9.4.2;3.4.2 Spectroscopic Analysis;93
9.4.2.1;3.4.2.1 FT-IR;93
9.4.2.2;3.4.2.2 NMR;94
9.4.2.3;3.4.2.3 Glycome Profiling;96
9.4.2.4;3.4.2.4 Immunogold Localization;98
9.4.2.5;3.4.2.5 SEM;99
9.5;3.5 Concluding Remarks;100
9.6;References;101
10;Chapter 4: Response of Biomass Species to Hydrothermal Pretreatment;115
10.1;4.1 Introduction;115
10.1.1;4.1.1 History, Current State of the Art, and Future Development;115
10.1.2;4.1.2 Feedstock Crop, Production, and Utilization;116
10.1.2.1;4.1.2.1 Wood;116
10.1.2.2;4.1.2.2 Bamboo;117
10.1.2.3;4.1.2.3 Agricultural Residues;117
10.1.2.4;4.1.2.4 Agave and Agave Bagasse;118
10.2;4.2 Structure and Chemical Composition Analysis of Raw Biomass;118
10.2.1;4.2.1 Ultrastructure of Lignocellulosic Biomass;118
10.2.2;4.2.2 Compositional Analysis of Biomass;124
10.2.2.1;4.2.2.1 Wood;125
10.2.2.2;4.2.2.2 Bamboo and Agricultural Residues;125
10.2.2.3;4.2.2.3 Agave and AGB;126
10.3;4.3 Response of Biomass to Hydrothermal Treatment;126
10.3.1;4.3.1 Reactions in Acidic Condition;127
10.3.1.1;4.3.1.1 Hydrolysis Mechanism in Acidic Condition;127
10.3.1.2;4.3.1.2 Hemicellulose;128
10.3.1.3;4.3.1.3 Cellulose;131
10.3.1.4;4.3.1.4 Lignin;133
10.3.1.5;4.3.1.5 Ash;134
10.3.1.6;4.3.1.6 Extractives;134
10.3.1.7;4.3.1.7 Ultrastructure;135
10.3.1.8;4.3.1.8 Summary of Acid Pretreatment on Biomass Solids;135
10.3.2;4.3.2 Reactions in Alkaline Condition;136
10.3.2.1;4.3.2.1 Hydrolysis Mechanism in Alkaline Condition;136
10.3.2.2;4.3.2.2 Hemicellulose;137
10.3.2.3;4.3.2.3 Cellulose;140
10.3.2.4;4.3.2.4 Lignin;141
10.3.2.5;4.3.2.5 Ash;142
10.3.2.6;4.3.2.6 Extractives;142
10.3.2.7;4.3.2.7 Ultrastructure;142
10.3.2.8;4.3.2.8 Summary of Alkaline Pretreatment on Biomass Solids;143
10.4;4.4 Influencing Factors;148
10.4.1;4.4.1 Effects of Temperature and Time;148
10.4.2;4.4.2 Effects of Particle Size and Solid Loading;148
10.4.3;4.4.3 Effects of Reactor Type;149
10.4.4;4.4.4 Summary of Influencing Factors;150
10.5;4.5 Conclusion;150
10.6;References;151
11;Chapter 5: Kinetic Modeling, Operational Conditions, and Biorefinery Products from Hemicellulose: Depolymerization and Solubil...;161
11.1;5.1 Introduction;161
11.2;5.2 Depolymerization and Solubilization Effect on Hemicellulose;165
11.2.1;5.2.1 Fundamentals of the Hydrothermal Processing;165
11.2.2;5.2.2 Operational and Bioreactors Strategies in Hydrothermal Processing;166
11.3;5.3 Mathematical Modeling Using Hydrothermal Processing;168
11.4;5.4 Importance of High Value-Added Compounds from Hemicellulose;170
11.5;5.5 Conclusion and Final Remarks;176
11.6;References;177
12;Chapter 6: Combined Severity Factor for Predicting Sugar Recovery in Acid-Catalyzed Pretreatment Followed by Enzymatic Hydroly...;181
12.1;6.1 Introduction;181
12.2;6.2 Dilute Acid Pretreatment of Cellulosic Biomass;183
12.3;6.3 Simple First-Order Kinetic Models of Dilute Acid Hydrolysis of Biomass Hemicellulose;184
12.4;6.4 Derivation of Combined Severity Factor from Simple First-Order Kinetic Models;186
12.5;6.5 Correlation of Pretreatment Xylose Yields to Combined Severity Factor;189
12.6;6.6 Correlation of Enzymatic Hydrolysis Glucose Yields to Combined Severity Factor;192
12.7;6.7 Correlation of Glucose Plus Xylose Yields from Pretreatment Plus Hydrolysis;195
12.8;6.8 Extension of Combined Severity Factor to Dilute Acid Hydrolysis of Xylooligomers;196
12.9;6.9 Conclusions;197
12.10;References;199
13;Chapter 7: Hydrothermal Pretreatment of Lignocellulosic Biomass for Bioethanol Production;201
13.1;7.1 Introduction;201
13.2;7.2 Hydrothermal Pretreatments;205
13.3;7.3 Liquid Hot Water Pretreatment;206
13.4;7.4 Severity;209
13.5;7.5 Pretreatment-Derived Inhibitors;213
13.6;7.6 Potential Application of Hydrothermally Pretreated Biomass as a Renewable Feedstock for Enzyme Production;215
13.7;7.7 Concluding Remarks;218
13.8;References;219
14;Chapter 8: Hydrothermal Pretreatment: Process Modeling and Economic Assessment Within the Framework of Biorefinery Processes;226
14.1;8.1 Introduction;226
14.2;8.2 Process Description;228
14.2.1;8.2.1 Implementation of the PFD in a Process Simulator;232
14.3;8.3 Data Used for Modeling;234
14.3.1;8.3.1 Modeling of Biomass and Biomass-Derived Compounds;234
14.3.2;8.3.2 Modeling of Chemical Reactions: Stoichiometry;240
14.3.3;8.3.3 Modeling of Chemical Reactions: Kinetics;243
14.4;8.4 Economics of Hydrothermal Pretreatment;245
14.4.1;8.4.1 Calculation of Capital and Operational Costs;246
14.4.2;8.4.2 Economic Evaluation of Biomass-Based Processes;247
14.4.3;8.4.3 Comparison of Economics for Different Hydrothermal Processes;249
14.5;8.5 Conclusions;250
14.6;References;251
15;Chapter 9: Bioethanol Production from Pretreated Solids Using Hydrothermal Processing;255
15.1;9.1 Introduction;255
15.2;9.2 Effect of the Hydrothermal Pretreatment on the Lignocellulosic Biomass;256
15.3;9.3 Examples of Hydrothermally Pretreated Biomass Used as Bioethanol Feedstocks;259
15.3.1;9.3.1 Energy Crops;259
15.3.2;9.3.2 Agricultural Residues;263
15.3.2.1;9.3.2.1 Date Palm Tree Fronds;263
15.3.3;9.3.3 Extremophiles;265
15.4;9.4 Conclusion;268
15.5;References;268
16;Chapter 10: Production and Emerging Applications of Bioactive Oligosaccharides from Biomass Hemicelluloses by Hydrothermal Pro...;271
16.1;10.1 Introduction;272
16.2;10.2 Production of Hemicellulosic Oligosaccharides by Hydrothermal Processing Within the Biorefinery Framework;274
16.2.1;10.2.1 Operational Conditions in the Hydrothermal Treatments;275
16.2.2;10.2.2 Reactor Configurations;276
16.2.3;10.2.3 Mathematical Modeling for the Autohydrolysis;277
16.2.4;10.2.4 Biomass-Derived Oligosaccharides: XOS Production;279
16.3;10.3 Refining of Autohydrolysis Media Containing the Solubilization Products from Hemicelluloses;281
16.4;10.4 Chemical and Structural Characterization of Hemicellulosic Oligosaccharides Obtained by Autohydrolysis;285
16.4.1;10.4.1 Chromatographic Techniques;285
16.4.2;10.4.2 Spectroscopic Analysis;288
16.5;10.5 Applications of Hemicellulosic Oligomers Obtained from Hydrothermal Processes;290
16.6;10.6 Concluding Remarks;291
16.7;References;296
17;Chapter 11: Production of Hemicellulases, Xylitol, and Furan from Hemicellulosic Hydrolysates Using Hydrothermal Pretreatment;302
17.1;11.1 Introduction;302
17.2;11.2 Structure of Hemicellulose;303
17.2.1;11.2.1 Processing of Hemicellulose;303
17.3;11.3 Production of Value-Added Products;306
17.4;11.4 Hemicellulases;306
17.4.1;11.4.1 Action Mode;307
17.4.1.1;11.4.1.1 Endoxylanases and beta-Xylosidases;307
17.4.1.2;11.4.1.2 ?-l-Arabinofuranosidases, Arabinanases, ?-Glucuronidases, and Galactosidases;307
17.4.1.3;11.4.1.3 Acetyl Xylan Esterases, Feruloyl Esterases, p-Coumaric Acid Esterases, and Glucuronoyl Esterases;308
17.4.1.4;11.4.1.4 Other Activities;308
17.4.2;11.4.2 Commercial Hemicellulases;308
17.4.3;11.4.3 Industrial Application and World Market;310
17.4.4;11.4.4 Hemicellulase Production from Hemicellulosic Hydrolysates of Hydrothermal Pretreatment;311
17.5;11.5 Xylitol;313
17.5.1;11.5.1 Chemical vs. Microbial Synthesis;314
17.5.2;11.5.2 Use of Engineered Strains for Xylitol Production;315
17.5.3;11.5.3 Xylitol Production from Hemicellulosic Sugars of Hydrothermal Pretreatment;317
17.6;11.6 Furan Compounds and Furan Derivatives;317
17.6.1;11.6.1 Furan Compounds Production by Hydrothermal Treatment: Degradation Reactions of Sugars;318
17.6.2;11.6.2 Furfural and HMF: Methods of Production and Applications;319
17.6.2.1;11.6.2.1 Technology of Production;321
17.6.2.2;11.6.2.2 Commercial Applications;322
17.6.3;11.6.3 Hydrothermal Treatment as the First Step for Furan Compound Production;323
17.7;11.7 Concluding Remarks;324
17.8;References;325
18;Chapter 12: Steam Explosion as a Hydrothermal Pretreatment in the Biorefinery Concept;333
18.1;12.1 Introduction;333
18.2;12.2 Steam Explosion Biorefinery Technique;334
18.2.1;12.2.1 Multistage Steam Explosion Process;334
18.2.2;12.2.2 Hydrothermal Mechanism of Steam Explosion Technique;336
18.2.3;12.2.3 Advantages of Steam Explosion-Derived Biomass Refining;338
18.3;12.3 Novel Steam Explosion-Derived Biorefinery Techniques;339
18.3.1;12.3.1 Steam Explosion and Solvent Extraction Integrated Biorefinery Technique;339
18.3.1.1;12.3.1.1 Steam Explosion: Ethanol Extraction Combined Pretreatment;339
18.3.1.2;12.3.1.2 Steam Explosion: High Boiling Organic Solvent Combined Pretreatment;339
18.3.1.3;12.3.1.3 Steam Explosion: Ionic Liquid Dissolution Combined Pretreatment;340
18.3.1.4;12.3.1.4 Steam Explosion: Alkaline Peroxide Combined Pretreatment;341
18.3.2;12.3.2 Steam Explosion and Superfine Grinding Integrated Biorefinery Technique;341
18.3.3;12.3.3 Steam Explosion and Mechanical Carding Integrated Biorefinery Technique;342
18.3.4;12.3.4 Two-Stage Steam Explosion and Carding Integrated Biorefinery Technique;343
18.4;12.4 Process Integration of Steam Explosion Biorefinery Techniques;344
18.5;References;346
19;Chapter 13: Adaptation of Severity Factor Model According to the Operating Parameter Variations Which Occur During Steam Explo...;349
19.1;13.1 Introduction;349
19.2;13.2 Steam Explosion: Process Description and Effects on Lignocellulosic Biomass;350
19.3;13.3 The Severity Factor: Description of the Model and Limiting Factors;356
19.3.1;13.3.1 Integration of Temperature and pH Variation in Steam Explosion Models;361
19.4;13.4 Conclusion;364
19.5;References;364
20;Chapter 14: Hydrothermal Pretreatment Using Supercritical CO2 in the Biorefinery Context;368
20.1;14.1 Introduction;368
20.2;14.2 Supercritical Fluids;369
20.3;14.3 Supercritical CO2: Why Is It so Intriguing Solvent?;370
20.4;14.4 Hydrothermal Technologies Catalysed with scCO2;372
20.4.1;14.4.1 Principles;372
20.4.2;14.4.2 Effect of Operational Pretreatment Conditions on Enzymatic Hydrolysis;375
20.4.2.1;14.4.2.1 CO2 Pressure;375
20.4.2.2;14.4.2.2 Temperature;376
20.4.2.3;14.4.2.3 Reaction Time;378
20.4.2.4;14.4.2.4 Influence of Other Factors;380
20.4.2.4.1;ScCO2 Efficiency Dependence on Water Presence;380
20.4.2.4.2;Biomass Features;381
20.4.3;14.4.3 Technology Integration;381
20.4.4;14.4.4 Comparison to Other Pretreatments;382
20.4.5;14.4.5 Effect on Hydrolysis of Hemicellulose;383
20.4.6;14.4.6 Lignin Processing;386
20.5;14.5 Conclusions and Outlook;387
20.6;References;388
21;Chapter 15: Scale-Up Hydrothermal Pretreatment of Sugarcane Bagasse and Straw for Second-Generation Ethanol Production;392
21.1;15.1 Hydrothermal Pretreatment;392
21.1.1;15.1.1 Reaction in Laboratory Scale;393
21.2;15.2 Mass Balance of Hydrothermal Pretreatment in Pilot Scale;396
21.3;15.3 Conclusions;401
21.4;References;402
22;Chapter 16: Pilot Plant Design and Operation Using a Hydrothermal Pretreatment: Bioenercel Experience;404
22.1;16.1 Introduction;404
22.2;16.2 Pilot Plant Description;405
22.2.1;16.2.1 Pretreatment;407
22.2.2;16.2.2 Disintegration and Conditioning;408
22.2.3;16.2.3 Enzymatic Hydrolysis;409
22.2.3.1;16.2.3.1 Separate Hydrolysis and Fermentation (SHF);409
22.2.3.2;16.2.3.2 Simultaneous Saccharification and Fermentation (SSF);409
22.2.4;16.2.4 Distillation;410
22.3;16.3 Evaluation of the Ethanol Production Process at Pilot Plant Scale;410
22.3.1;16.3.1 Pretreatment;410
22.3.2;16.3.2 Enzymatic Hydrolysis;413
22.3.3;16.3.3 Fermentation;414
22.3.4;16.3.4 Distillation;414
22.4;References;415
23;Chapter 17: Techno-Economic Aspects in the Evaluation of Biorefineries for Production of Second-Generation Bioethanol;416
23.1;17.1 Introduction;416
23.1.1;17.1.1 A Quick Glance at 1G and 2G Technologies for Ethanol Production;418
23.1.1.1;17.1.1.1 Starch-to-Ethanol;419
23.1.1.2;17.1.1.2 Sugarcane-to-Ethanol;419
23.1.1.3;17.1.1.3 Lignocellulose-to-Ethanol;421
23.1.2;17.1.2 Flowsheeting;423
23.1.3;17.1.3 Economics of a Process;425
23.1.4;17.1.4 Feedstock Considerations;426
23.1.5;17.1.5 Some Selected Examples of Techno-Economic Simulations;427
23.1.5.1;17.1.5.1 Integration of 2G Ethanol Production in 1G Plants;429
23.1.5.2;17.1.5.2 Integration of Process Units;430
23.1.5.3;17.1.5.3 Integration with Pulp Mills or District Heating Systems;431
23.1.6;17.1.6 Concluding Remarks;432
23.2;References;433
24;Chapter 18: Minimizing Precipitated Lignin Formation and Maximizing Monosugar Concentration by Formic Acid Reinforced Hydrolys...;436
24.1;18.1 Introduction;436
24.2;18.2 Experimental Methods;438
24.2.1;18.2.1 Procedures;438
24.2.1.1;18.2.1.1 Chemical Analysis of Wood and Prehydrolysate;439
24.2.1.2;18.2.1.2 Precipitate Characterization;441
24.2.2;18.2.2 Wood Composition;441
24.3;18.3 Results and Discussion;441
24.4;18.4 Conclusions;454
24.5;References;455
25;Chapter 19: Microwave-Assisted Hydrothermal Processing of Seaweed Biomass;457
25.1;19.1 Introduction;457
25.2;19.2 Microwave-Assisted Biorefinery;461
25.3;19.3 Microwave-Assisted Hydrothermal Processing of Model Sugars;463
25.4;19.4 Microwave-Assisted Hydrothermal Processing of Seaweed Biomass;466
25.5;19.5 Dielectric Properties of Seaweed Biomass in Water;468
25.6;19.6 Conclusion;470
25.7;References;471
26;Chapter 20: Hydrothermal Processes for Extraction of Macroalgae High Value-Added Compounds;475
26.1;20.1 Introduction;475
26.1.1;20.1.1 Brown Macroalgae;476
26.1.2;20.1.2 Green Macroalgae;477
26.1.3;20.1.3 Red Macroalgae;477
26.2;20.2 Market and Current Applications;478
26.3;20.3 Hydrothermal Process for the Extraction of Macroalgae Bioactive Compounds;479
26.3.1;20.3.1 Hydrothermal Process Applied over Brown Macroalgae;479
26.3.2;20.3.2 Hydrothermal Process Applied over Green Macroalgae;487
26.3.3;20.3.3 Hydrothermal Process Applied over Red Macroalgae;488
26.4;20.4 Conventional Extraction Methods;489
26.5;20.5 Conclusions and Final Remarks;489
26.6;References;492
27;Chapter 21: Hydrothermal Processing of Microalgae;496
27.1;21.1 Introduction;496
27.2;21.2 Pretreatments Applied to Microalgae Biomass;500
27.3;21.3 Thermal Pretreatments;503
27.3.1;21.3.1 Effect on Microalgae Organic Matter;503
27.3.2;21.3.2 Effect on Biofuels Production;505
27.3.2.1;21.3.2.1 Bioethanol Production;505
27.3.2.2;21.3.2.2 Biogas Production;507
27.3.2.3;21.3.2.3 Bio-Oil Production;508
27.4;21.4 Conclusions and Final Remarks;509
27.5;References;509
28;Index;514