Sadewasser / Glatzel Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy

From Single Charge Detection to Device Characterization
1. Auflage 2018
ISBN: 978-3-319-75687-5
Verlag: Springer Nature Switzerland
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: 1 - PDF Watermark

E-Book, Englisch, Band 65, 530 Seiten

Reihe: Springer Series in Surface Sciences

This book provides a comprehensive introduction to the methods and variety of Kelvin probe force microscopy, including technical details. It also offers an overview of the recent developments and numerous applications, ranging from semiconductor materials, nanostructures and devices to sub-molecular and atomic scale electrostatics.In the last 25 years, Kelvin probe force microscopy has developed from a specialized technique applied by a few scanning probe microscopy experts into a tool used by numerous research and development groups around the globe. This sequel to the editors' previous volume 'Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy: Measuring and Compensating Electrostatic Forces,' presents new and complementary topics.It is intended for a broad readership, from undergraduate students to lab technicians and scanning probe microscopy experts who are new to the field.


Sascha Sadewasser has been the Principal Investigator of the Laboratory for Nanostructured Solar Cells at INL - International Iberian Nanotechnology Laboratory (Portugal) since 2011. In 1999, he received his PhD from Washington University in St. Louis (USA). After a post-doc at Hahn-Meitner Institut Berlin and a Ramón y Cajal fellowship at the CNM in Barcelona (Spain), he was a group leader at the Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin (Germany). Sascha's research focuses on the development of nanostructures for and of chalcopyrite materials for the improvement of solar cells. He is an expert on scanning probe microscopy, and specifically Kelvin probe force microscopy, applied to semiconductor and solar cell research. His work has provided important insights into the physics of grain boundaries in polycrystalline Cu(in,Ga)Se2 thin-film solar cells. He has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers and 5 book chapters, and has been granted 3 patents. He is also a member of several scientific committees and evaluation boards. Thilo Glatzel is leader of the force microscopy group which is part of the research group from Prof. E. Meyer at the University of Basel. He is co-author of 115 international publications, contributed several book chapters, co-edited the first volume of the book on Kelvin probe force microscopy (KPFM), and has more than 100 contributions to international scientific conferences. During his dissertation at the Helmholtz-Zentrum Berlin he investigated interfaces and surfaces of chalcopyrite thin film solar cells based on Cu(Ga,In)(S,Se)2 absorber materials by KPFM. His work is now focused on the development of instruments and measurement techniques for high resolution scanning probe microscopy and the analysis of molecules and insulating and semiconducting surfaces at the nanometer scale. The expertise of the group is clearly focused on the nanoscale analysis and preparation of highly ordered surfaces down to the molecular and atomic scale, however with a focus on optoelectronic processes. 

Autoren/Hrsg.

Sadewasser, Sascha

Glatzel, Thilo

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Foreword;6
2;Preface;7
3;Contents;9
4;Contributors;17
5;Abbreviations;20
6;Experimental Methods and Technical Aspects;24
7;1 Experimental Technique and Working Modes;25
7.1;1.1 Introduction;25
7.2;1.2 Non-contact Atomic Force Microscopy;26
7.3;1.3 Electrostatic Force Microscopy;30
7.4;1.4 Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy;32
7.4.1;1.4.1 AM-KPFM;33
7.4.2;1.4.2 FM-KPFM;34
7.4.3;1.4.3 Technical Realization;35
7.4.4;1.4.4 Other Modes and Additional Experimental Options;38
7.5;1.5 Additional Remarks;40
7.6;References;42
8;2 Dissipation Modulated Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy Method;45
8.1;2.1 Introduction;46
8.2;2.2 Theory;48
8.2.1;2.2.1 Review of Theory of Frequency Modulation Atomic Force Microscopy;48
8.2.2;2.2.2 Analysis of Electrostatic Force with AC Bias Voltage;50
8.3;2.3 Experimental;56
8.4;2.4 Results and Discussion;57
8.4.1;2.4.1 Validation of D-KPFM Theory;57
8.4.2;2.4.2 Illustrative Example of D-KPFM Imaging;60
8.4.3;2.4.3 Comparison of Different KPFM Techniques;62
8.4.4;2.4.4 Dynamic Response of D-KPFM;66
8.5;2.5 Conclusion;67
8.6;References;68
9;3 Dynamic Modes in Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy: Band Excitation and G-Mode;70
9.1;Abstract;70
9.2;3.1 Introduction;71
9.3;3.2 Principles of EFM and KPFM;72
9.4;3.3 Classic KPFM Methods;76
9.5;3.4 Dynamic KPFM Without DC Bias Feedback;77
9.6;3.5 Band Excitation KPFM;80
9.6.1;3.5.1 Open Loop BE-KPFM;81
9.6.2;3.5.2 Half Harmonic BE-KPFM;84
9.6.3;3.5.3 Photothermal BE-KPFM;86
9.6.4;3.5.4 Force Volume BE-KPFM;88
9.7;3.6 Time Resolved KPFM;91
9.8;3.7 G-Mode KPFM;94
9.8.1;3.7.1 Classical Analysis Approach: Digital Heterodyne Detection;96
9.8.2;3.7.2 Physics Based Analysis: Recovery of Force-Voltage Dependence;101
9.8.3;3.7.3 Information Based Analysis: Data Mining;102
9.8.4;3.7.4 General Dynamic Mode;103
9.9;3.8 KPFM Spectroscopies;106
9.9.1;3.8.1 Contact KPFM;107
9.10;3.9 Outlook;114
9.11;Acknowledgement;115
9.12;References;115
10;4 Practical Aspects of Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy in Liquids;121
10.1;Abstract;121
10.2;4.1 Introduction;121
10.3;4.2 Electric Double Layer;122
10.4;4.3 Capacitive Force;125
10.5;4.4 Electrostatic Force;128
10.6;4.5 Surface Charge Measurement by Force Mapping;132
10.7;4.6 Summary;136
10.8;References;137
11;5 Time-Resolved Electrostatic and Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy;139
11.1;Abstract;139
11.2;5.1 Introduction;139
11.3;5.2 Time-Resolved Electrostatic Force Microscopy;141
11.3.1;5.2.1 Real-Time Measurements After Bias Pulsing;141
11.3.2;5.2.2 Real-Time Measurements After Light Pulses;144
11.3.3;5.2.3 Improved Time Resolution by Analysis of the Cantilever Oscillation;146
11.4;5.3 Time-Resolved Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy;148
11.4.1;5.3.1 Real-Time Measurements After Light Pulsing;148
11.4.2;5.3.2 Real-Time Measurements After Bias Pulsing;151
11.4.3;5.3.3 Intensity-Modulated KPFM;152
11.4.4;5.3.4 Bias-Modulated KPFM;155
11.4.5;5.3.5 Pump-Probe KPFM;156
11.5;5.4 Conclusion and Outlook;160
11.6;References;160
12;Data Interpretation and Theoretical Aspects;164
13;6 Imaging Static Charge Distributions: A Comprehensive KPFM Theory;165
13.1;6.1 Introduction;166
13.2;6.2 Electrostatic Description;167
13.3;6.3 KPFM Detection;173
13.4;6.4 The KPFM Signal;179
13.4.1;6.4.1 Excursus: Measuring Spectral Components;180
13.4.2;6.4.2 AM-KPFM;181
13.4.3;6.4.3 FM-KPFM;182
13.4.4;6.4.4 Summary of the KPFM Modes;184
13.5;6.5 The Weight Function for Charges;185
13.6;6.6 Conclusions and Outlook;186
13.7;References;187
14;7 Interpretation of KPFM Data with the Weight Function for Charges;189
14.1;7.1 Introduction;190
14.2;7.2 The Weight Function for Charges;191
14.2.1;7.2.1 The Void Tip-Sample System;192
14.3;7.3 Properties of the Weight Function for Charges;193
14.4;7.4 KPFM Signal for Relevant Charge Distributions;195
14.4.1;7.4.1 Imaging a Single Point Charge;196
14.4.2;7.4.2 Lateral Resolution for Imaging Charges with KPFM;201
14.4.3;7.4.3 Imaging Dipoles;205
14.4.4;7.4.4 Surface Charge Distribution;206
14.5;7.5 Conclusions and Outlook;210
14.6;References;217
15;8 Precise Modeling of Electrostatic Interactions with Dielectric Samples in Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy;219
15.1;8.1 Introduction;219
15.2;8.2 Analytic Approach;220
15.2.1;8.2.1 Spherical Tip Against Semi-infinite Dielectric;221
15.2.2;8.2.2 Dielectric Slab;229
15.2.3;8.2.3 Spherical Tip Atop Grounded Dielectric Slab;232
15.3;8.3 Numerical Approach;235
15.3.1;8.3.1 Numerical Image Charges Method;236
15.3.2;8.3.2 Real Space Discretization;236
15.3.3;8.3.3 Conductive Probe-Dielectric Sample Electrostatics;239
15.4;8.4 Concluding Remarks;242
15.5;References;243
16;9 Quantitative Analysis of Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy on Semiconductors;245
16.1;9.1 Introduction;245
16.2;9.2 Fundamentals of KPFM Measurements on Semiconductors;247
16.3;9.3 The Work Function of Semiconductors;250
16.4;9.4 Surface Charge on Semiconductors;251
16.5;9.5 Model Calculations for pn-Junctions;254
16.6;9.6 Comparison with Selected Experiments;258
16.7;9.7 KPFM and Surface Photovoltage;262
16.8;References;264
17;Application to Device Characterization;266
18;10 Nanoscale Transport Imaging of Active Lateral Devices: Static and Frequency Dependent Modes;267
18.1;Abstract;267
18.2;10.1 Introduction;267
18.3;10.2 Techniques;269
18.3.1;10.2.1 DC Transport by KPFM;273
18.3.2;10.2.2 Frequency and Time Dependent Transport Imaging;278
18.3.3;10.2.3 Non-linear Transport Imaging via Scanning Probe Microscopy;287
18.3.3.1;10.2.3.1 Non-linear SIM;287
18.3.3.2;10.2.3.2 Scanning Frequency Mixing Microscopy;290
18.3.4;10.2.4 Time-Resolved and Pump-Probe KPFM Methods;294
18.3.5;10.2.5 Gating Probes;299
18.4;10.3 Tip Calibration and Imaging Artefacts;301
18.4.1;10.3.1 Tip Calibration in Electrostatic SPMs;301
18.4.2;10.3.2 Imaging Artifacts and Some Considerations on Invasiveness;304
18.4.3;10.3.3 Invasiveness;307
18.5;10.4 Applications to Non-invasive Electronic Transport;307
18.6;10.5 Voltage Modifications in Lateral Devices;321
18.7;10.6 Light Effects;329
18.8;10.7 Transport Imaging in Liquids;332
18.9;10.8 Perspectives;334
18.9.1;10.8.1 New Techniques;334
18.9.2;10.8.2 Probes and Controlled Environments;336
18.9.3;10.8.3 Data Analysis and Knowledge Extraction;337
18.9.4;10.8.4 Towards Community Science;338
18.10;Acknowledgements;338
18.11;References;338
19;11 Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy Characterization of Organic and Hybrid Perovskite Solar Cells;346
19.1;Abstract;346
19.2;11.1 Introduction;346
19.2.1;11.1.1 Organic Solar Cells;346
19.2.2;11.1.2 Hybrid Perovskites Solar Cells;349
19.2.3;11.1.3 Using KPFM for Local Investigations of Solution Processed Solar Cells;352
19.3;11.2 KPFM Investigations of Donor-Acceptor Interfaces;353
19.4;11.3 KPFM Investigations of Hybrid Perovskite Thin Films;363
19.5;11.4 Cross-Sectional KPFM Investigations;365
19.6;11.5 Time-Resolved Surface Photo-Voltage Measurements;372
19.7;11.6 Summary and Outlook;376
19.8;References;377
20;12 KPFM of Nanostructured Electrochemical Sensors;381
20.1;12.1 Introduction;381
20.1.1;12.1.1 Nanostructured Chemical Sensors;382
20.1.2;12.1.2 Principles of Operation of Electrochemical Transducers;383
20.1.3;12.1.3 Effect of Surface Adsorption on the Work Function;384
20.2;12.2 Molecular Gate;385
20.2.1;12.2.1 CPD Map of a Multiple Gate FET Sensor;385
20.2.2;12.2.2 CPD Changes Following Chemical Modification;387
20.2.3;12.2.3 Coupling Between Front and Back Gate Potentials;391
20.2.4;12.2.4 Molecular Gating of a Multiple Gate FET Sensor;393
20.3;12.3 KPFM as a Tool to Evaluate Sensor Selectivity and Sensitivity on a Nanoscale;395
20.3.1;12.3.1 Multiple Gate FET-based Sensor Surface After Analyte Adsorption;395
20.3.2;12.3.2 Recent Examples for KPFM of Nanostructured Sensors;397
20.3.3;12.3.3 Sensor Surface Recovery and Degradation;399
20.4;12.4 Summary and Perspective;400
20.5;References;401
21;13 Applications of KPFM-Based Approaches for Surface Potential and Electrochemical Measurements in Liquid;404
21.1;Abstract;404
21.2;13.1 Introduction;404
21.3;13.2 Understanding Electrostatic Forces in Liquid;406
21.3.1;13.2.1 Standard EDL Models;406
21.3.1.1;13.2.1.1 The Diffuse EDL;406
21.3.1.2;13.2.1.2 EDL Dynamics;408
21.3.1.3;13.2.1.3 Poisson-Nernst-Planck Equation;410
21.3.2;13.2.2 Practical Implementations of VM AFM;414
21.4;13.3 Applications of EFM in Liquid;416
21.4.1;13.3.1 Bias-Free Approaches;417
21.4.2;13.3.2 Applications Utilizing Constant Voltage;418
21.4.3;13.3.3 Applications Utilizing Voltage Modulation;420
21.5;13.4 Applications of KPFM in Liquid;426
21.5.1;13.4.1 Macroscopic Kelvin Probe in Liquid;427
21.5.2;13.4.2 Applications of Classical KPFM in Non-polar Liquid;427
21.5.3;13.4.3 Breakdown of Classical KPFM in Polar Liquid;430
21.5.4;13.4.4 Applications of Open Loop-KPFM in Liquid;432
21.6;13.5 Bias and Time Resolved Approaches;436
21.6.1;13.5.1 Electrochemical Force Microscopy;436
21.7;13.6 Conclusions and Outlook;441
21.8;Acknowledgements;443
21.9;References;443
22;Atomic Scale Experiments;447
23;14 Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy with Atomic Resolution;448
23.1;Abstract;448
23.2;14.1 Introduction;449
23.3;14.2 Stray Capacitance Effect in Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy;449
23.3.1;14.2.1 Theoretical Comparison of FM-, AM- and Heterodyne AM-KPFM;450
23.3.1.1;14.2.1.1 FM-KPFM;452
23.3.1.2;14.2.1.2 AM-KPFM;453
23.3.1.3;14.2.1.3 Heterodyne AM-KPFM;456
23.3.2;14.2.2 Experimental Results of FM-, AM-, and Heterodyne AM-KPFM;457
23.3.2.1;14.2.2.1 Stray Capacitance Effect;457
23.3.2.2;14.2.2.2 Surface Potential Measurements;458
23.4;14.3 Surface Potential Measurement of TiO2(110) by FM-KPFM;460
23.4.1;14.3.1 Topography and Local Contact Potential Difference Image of TiO2(110);461
23.4.2;14.3.2 Model to Explain the Origin of the Surface Potential of TiO2 (110);464
23.5;14.4 Simultaneous Measurement of Topography, Tunneling Current, and Surface Potential;467
23.5.1;14.4.1 Theory of FM-KPFM Without Bias Voltage Feedback;467
23.5.2;14.4.2 Experimental AFM/STM/KPFM System;469
23.5.3;14.4.3 Multiple Images with Atomic Resolution on a TiO2(110) Surface;470
23.6;14.5 Conclusions;472
23.7;Acknowledgements;472
23.8;References;473
24;15 The Electrostatic Field of CO Functionalized Metal Tips;475
24.1;15.1 Introduction;475
24.2;15.2 The Dipole of CO Molecules in Gas Phase;477
24.3;15.3 The Electric Field of Metallic Tips;479
24.4;15.4 The Electric Field of Metal-CO Tips;481
24.5;15.5 A Theoretical Model to Simulate HR-AFM Imaging with Metal-CO Tips;484
24.5.1;15.5.1 Description of the Tip-Sample Interaction Potential;484
24.5.2;15.5.2 Cl Vacancy on a NaCl/Cu(100) Surface;486
24.5.3;15.5.3 CO Tilting: DFT Versus Model Calculations;487
24.6;15.6 Experimental Validation of the Electric Field Created by a Metal-CO Tip: Cl Vacancy on a NaCl Bilayer;488
24.6.1;15.6.1 Experimental Results;488
24.6.2;15.6.2 Simulation Results;490
24.6.3;15.6.3 Determination of the Dipole that Describes the Metal Tip in the Experiment;493
24.6.4;15.6.4 Interplay Between CO and Metallic Tip Electrostatic Interactions;494
24.6.5;15.6.5 Can a Single Dipole Mimic a CO Molecule on a Tip?;496
24.7;15.7 AFM Imaging of the CO Molecule as an Adsorbate;497
24.8;15.8 Conclusions;502
24.9;References;505
25;16 Imaging Charge DistributionWithin Molecules by Scanning ProbeMicroscopy;508
25.1;16.1 Introduction;508
25.2;16.2 Atomic Resolution in Kelvin Probe Force Microscopy;510
25.2.1;16.2.1 Detection of Charge States;514
25.2.2;16.2.2 Mapping Charge Distribution Within Molecules;515
25.3;16.3 High-Resolution AFM/STM Imaging;518
25.3.1;16.3.1 Impact of the Electrostatic Interaction on the High-Resolution AFM/STM Imaging;518
25.3.2;16.3.2 Mapping Electrostatic Potential Using High-Resolution Imaging;521
25.4;16.4 Conclusions;525
25.5;References;525
26;Index;528