Saha The Earth's Atmosphere

Its Physics and Dynamics
1. Auflage 2008
ISBN: 978-3-540-78427-2
Verlag: Springer-Verlag
Format: PDF
Kopierschutz: Adobe DRM (»Systemvoraussetzungen)

E-Book, Englisch, 367 Seiten

The author has sought to incorporate in the book some of the fundamental concepts and principles of the physics and dynamics of the atmosphere, a knowledge and understanding of which should help an average student of science to comprehend some of the great complexities of the earth-atmosphere system, in which a thr- way interaction between the atmosphere, the land and the ocean tends to maintain an overall mass and energy balance in the system through physical and dynamical processes. The book, divided into two parts and consisting of 19 chapters, introduces only those aspects of the subject that, according to the author, are deemed essential to meet the objective in view. The emphasis is more on clarity and understanding of physical and dynamical principles than on details of complex theories and ma- ematics. Attempt is made to treat each subject from ?rst principles and trace its development to present state, as far as possible. However, a knowledge of basic c- culus and differential equations is sine qua non especially for some of the chapters which appear later in the book.

Autoren/Hrsg.

Saha, Kshudiram

Inhaltsverzeichnis

1;Preface;7
2;Contents;9
3;About the Book and the Author;19
4;Guide to Systems of Numbering Diagrams and Equations in Text and Appendices;21
4.1;Text;21
4.2;Appendices;21
5;Part I Physics of the Earth’s Atmosphere;23
5.1;The Sun and the Earth – The Solar System and the Earth’s Gravitation;24
5.1.1;1.1 Introduction;24
5.1.2;1.2 Earth’s Gravitational Force – Gravity;25
5.1.3;1.3 Geopotential Surfaces;27
5.1.4;1.4 Motion in the Earth’s Gravitational Field – The Law of Central Forces;27
5.2;The Earth’s Atmosphere – Its Origin, Composition and Properties;30
5.2.1;2.1 Introduction: Origin of the Earth’s Atmosphere;30
5.2.2;2.2 Composition of the Atmosphere;31
5.2.3;2.3 Properties and Variables of the Atmosphere;33
5.2.4;2.4 Gas Laws – Equations of State;44
5.3;Heat and Thermodynamics of the Atmosphere;48
5.3.1;3.1 Introduction. The Nature of Heat and Kinetic Theory;48
5.3.2;3.2 The First Law of Thermodynamics;48
5.3.3;3.3 Specific Heats of Gases;49
5.3.4;3.4 Adiabatic Changes in the Atmosphere;51
5.3.5;3.5 The Concept of Entropy;54
5.3.6;3.6 The Second Law of Thermodynamics;57
5.3.7;3.7 Thermodynamic Equilibrium of Systems: Thermodynamic Potentials;61
5.3.8;3.8 The Third Law of Thermodynamics;62
5.3.9;3.9 The Atmosphere as a Heat Engine;63
5.4;Water Vapour in the Atmosphere: Thermodynamics of Moist Air;64
5.4.1;4.1 Introduction;64
5.4.2;4.2 Humidity of the Air – Definitions;65
5.4.3;4.3 Density of Moist Air – Virtual Temperature;66
5.4.4;4.4 Measurement of Humidity – Hygrometers/Psychrometers;67
5.4.5;4.5 Ascent of Moist Air in the Atmosphere – Pseudo-Adiabatic Process;69
5.4.6;4.6 Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate of Temperature;71
5.4.7;4.7 Equivalent Potential Temperature;71
5.4.8;4.8 Variation of Saturation Vapour Pressure with Temperature;72
5.4.9;4.9 Co-existence of the Three Phases ofWater – the Triple Point;74
5.4.10;4.10 Stability of Moist Air;76
5.5;Physics of Cloud and Precipitation;80
5.5.1;5.1 Introduction – Historical Perspective;80
5.5.2;5.2 Cloud-Making in the Laboratory – Condensation Nuclei;81
5.5.3;5.3 Atmospheric Nuclei – Cloud Formation in the Atmosphere;83
5.5.4;5.4 Drop-Size Distribution in Clouds;85
5.5.5;5.5 Rate of Fall of Cloud and Rain Drops;86
5.5.6;5.6 Supercooled Clouds and Ice-Particles – Sublimation;87
5.5.7;5.7 Clouds in the Sky: Types and Classification;89
5.5.8;5.8 From Cloud to Rain;89
5.5.9;5.9 Meteorological Evidence – Rainfall from Cold andWarm Clouds;96
5.5.10;5.10 Climatological Rainfall Distribution over the Globe;97
5.6;Physics of Radiation – Fundamental Laws;100
5.6.1;6.1 Introduction – the Nature of Thermal Radiation;100
5.6.2;6.2 Radiation and Absorption – Heat Exchanges;100
5.6.3;6.3 Properties of Radiation;102
5.6.4;6.4 Laws of Radiation – Emission and Absorption;103
5.6.5;6.5 Spectral Distribution of Radiant Energy;107
5.6.6;6.6 Some Practical Uses of Electromagnetic Radiation;109
5.7;The Sun and its Radiation;110
5.7.1;7.1 Introduction;110
5.7.2;7.2 Physical Characteristics of the Sun;111
5.7.3;7.3 Structure of the Sun – its Interior;111
5.7.4;7.4 The Photosphere;115
5.7.5;7.5 The Solar Atmosphere;116
5.7.6;7.6 The Solar Wind;118
5.7.7;7.7 The Search for Neutrinos;119
5.8;The Incoming Solar Radiation – Interaction with the Earth’s Atmosphere and Surface;120
5.8.1;8.1 Introduction – the Solar Spectrum;120
5.8.2;8.2 Interactions with the Upper Atmosphere (Above 80 km);121
5.8.3;8.3 The Mesosphere (50–80km Layer);123
5.8.4;8.4 Interaction with Ozone: the Ozonosphere (20–50 km);123
5.8.5;8.5 Scattering, Reflection and Absorption of Solar Radiation in the Atmosphere;128
5.8.6;8.6 Incoming Solar Radiation (Insolation) at the Earth’s Surface;129
5.8.7;8.7 Reflection of Solar Radiation at the Earth’s Surface – The Albedo;134
5.9;Heat Balance of the Earth’s Surface – Upward and Downward Transfer of Heat;136
5.9.1;9.1 Introduction: General Considerations;136
5.9.2;9.2 Heat Balance on a PlanetWithout an Atmosphere;137
5.9.3;9.3 Heat Balance on a Planet with an Atmosphere: The Greenhouse Effect;138
5.9.4;9.4 Vertical Transfer of Radiative Heating – Diurnal TemperatureWave;140
5.9.5;9.5 Sensible Heat Flux;141
5.9.6;9.6 Evaporation and Evaporative Heat Flux from a Surface;144
5.9.7;9.7 Exchange of Heat Between the Earth’s Surface and the Underground Soil;146
5.9.8;9.8 Radiative Heat Flux into the Ocean;150
5.9.9;9.9 The Thermohaline Circulation – Buoyancy Flux;155
5.9.10;9.10 Photosynthesis in the Ocean: Chemical and Biological Processes;156
5.10;Heat Balance of the Earth-Atmosphere System – Heat Sources and Sinks;158
5.10.1;10.1 Introduction – definition of heat sources and sinks;158
5.10.2;10.2 Physical Processes Involved in Heat Balance;159
5.10.3;10.3 Simpson’s Computation of Heat Budget;160
5.10.4;10.4 Heat Balance from Satellite Radiation Data;162
5.10.5;10.5 Heat Sources and Sinks from the Energy Balance Equation;166
5.10.6;10.6 Computation of Atmospheric Heating from Mass Continuity Equation;170
6;Part II Dynamics of the Earth’s Atmosphere – The General Circulation;174
6.1;Winds on a Rotating Earth – The Dynamical Equations and the Conservation Laws;176
6.1.1;11.1 Introduction;176
6.1.2;11.2 Forces Acting on a Parcel of Air;177
6.1.3;11.3 Acceleration of Absolute Motion;179
6.1.4;11.4 Acceleration of Relative Motion;180
6.1.5;11.5 The Equations of Motion in a Rectangular Co- ordinate System;183
6.1.6;11.6 A System of Generalized Vertical Co-ordinates;183
6.1.7;11.7 The Equations of Motion in Spherical Co-ordinate System;185
6.1.8;11.8 The Equation of Continuity;188
6.1.9;11.9 The Thermodynamic Energy Equation;189
6.1.10;11.10 Scale Analysis and Simplification of the Equations of Motion;190
6.2;Simplified Equations of Motion – Quasi- Balanced Winds;194
6.2.1;12.1 Introduction;194
6.2.2;12.2 The Basic Equations in Isobaric Co-ordinates;194
6.2.3;12.3 Balanced Flow in Natural Co-ordinates;196
6.2.4;12.4 Trajectories and Streamlines;201
6.2.5;12.5 Streamline-Isotach Analysis;203
6.2.6;12.6 Variation of Wind with Height – The ThermalWind;204
6.3;Circulation, Vorticity and Divergence;208
6.3.1;13.1 Definitions and Concepts – Circulation and Vorticity;208
6.3.2;13.2 The Circulation Theorem;209
6.3.3;13.3 Absolute and Relative Vorticity;212
6.3.4;13.4 Vorticity and Divergence in Natural Co-ordinates;212
6.3.5;13.5 Potential Vorticity;214
6.3.6;13.6 The Vorticity Equation in Frictionless Adiabatic Flow;217
6.3.7;13.7 The Vorticity Equation from the Equations of Motion;217
6.3.8;13.8 Circulation and Vorticity in the Real Atmosphere ( In Three Dimensions);220
6.3.9;13.9 Vertical Motion in the Atmosphere;221
6.3.10;13.10 Differential Properties of aWind Field;223
6.3.11;13.11 Types of Wind Fields – Graphical Representation;226
6.4;The Boundary Layers of the Atmosphere and the Ocean;228
6.4.1;14.1 Introduction;228
6.4.2;14.2 The Equations of Turbulent Motion in the Atmosphere;229
6.4.3;14.3 The Mixing-Length Hypothesis – Exchange Co-efficients;232
6.4.4;14.4 The Vertical Structure of the Frictionally-Controlled Boundary Layer;233
6.4.5;14.5 The Secondary Circulation – The Spin-Down Effect;238
6.4.6;14.6 The Boundary Layer of the Ocean – Ekman Drift and Mass Transport;243
6.4.7;14.7 Ekman Pumping and Coastal Upwelling in the Ocean;245
6.5;Waves and Oscillations in the Atmosphere and the Ocean;248
6.5.1;15.1 Introduction;248
6.5.2;15.2 The Simple Pendulum;249
6.5.3;15.3 Representation of Waves by Fourier Series;250
6.5.4;15.4 Dispersion of Waves and Group Velocity;251
6.5.5;15.5 The Perturbation Technique;252
6.5.6;15.6 SimpleWave Types;253
6.5.7;15.7 Internal Gravity (or Buoyancy) Waves in the Atmosphere;260
6.5.8;15.8 Dynamics of Shallow Water Gravity Waves;265
6.6;Equatorial Waves and Oscillations;274
6.6.1;16.1 Introduction;274
6.6.2;16.2 The Governing Equations in Log-Pressure Co- ordinate System;275
6.6.3;16.3 The Kelvin Wave;276
6.6.4;16.4 The Mixed Rossby-Gravity Wave;278
6.6.5;16.5 Observational Evidence;280
6.6.6;16.6 The Quasi-Biennial Oscillation (QBO);281
6.6.7;16.7 The Madden-Julian Oscillation (MJO);283
6.6.8;16.8 El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO);287
6.7;Dynamical Models and Numerical Weather Prediction ( N. W. P.);296
6.7.1;17.1 Introduction – Historical Background;296
6.7.2;17.2 The Filtering of Sound and Gravity Waves;297
6.7.3;17.3 Quasi-Geostrophic Models;299
6.7.4;17.4 Nondivergent Models;300
6.7.5;17.5 Hierarchy of Simplified Models;303
6.7.6;17.6 Primitive Equation Models;305
6.7.7;17.7 Present Status of NWP;311
6.8;Dynamical Instability of Atmospheric Flows – Energetics and Energy Conversions;314
6.8.1;18.1 Introduction;314
6.8.2;18.2 Inertial Instability;315
6.8.3;18.3 Baroclinic Instability;316
6.8.4;18.4 Vertical Motion in Baroclinically UnstableWaves;321
6.8.5;18.5 Energetics and Energy Conversions in Baroclinic Instability;323
6.8.6;18.6 Barotropic Instability;327
6.8.7;18.7 Conditional Instability of the Second Kind (CISK);329
6.9;The General Circulation of the Atmosphere;332
6.9.1;19.1 Introduction – Historical Background;332
6.9.2;19.2 Zonally-Averaged Mean Temperature and Wind Fields Over the Globe;334
6.9.3;19.3 Observed Distributions of Mean Winds (Streamlines) and Circulations Over the Globe During Winter and Summer;338
6.9.4;19.4 Maintenance of the Kinetic Energy and Angular Momentum of the General Circulation;340
6.9.5;19.5 Eddy-Transports;345
6.9.6;19.6 Laboratory Simulation of the General Circulation;348
6.9.7;19.7 Numerical Experiment on the General Circulation;352
6.10;Appendices;354
6.10.1;Appendix-1(A) Vector Analysis-Some Important Vector Relations 1.1 The Concept of a Vector;354
6.10.2;1.2 Addition and Subtraction of Vectors: Multiplication of a Vector by a Scalar;355
6.10.3;1.3 Multiplication of Vectors;356
6.10.4;1.4 Differentiation of Vectors: Application to the Theory of Space Curves;358
6.10.5;1.5 Space Derivative of a Scalar Quantity. The Concept of a Gradient Vector;359
6.10.6;1.6 Del Operator,;360
6.10.7;1.7 Use of Del Operator in Different Co-ordinate Systems;361
6.10.8;x, y, z);361
6.10.9;Appendix-1(B) Motion Under Earth’s Gravitational Force;362
6.10.10;Appendix-2 Adiabatic Propagation of SoundWaves;363
6.10.11;Appendix-3 Some Selected Thermodynamic Diagrams;364
6.10.12;Appendix-4 Derivation of the Equation for Saturation Vapour Pressure Curve Taking into Account the Temperature Dependence of the Specific Heats ( Joos and Freeman ( 1967));365
6.10.13;Appendix-5 Theoretical Derivation of Kelvin’s Vapour Pressure;367
6.10.14;Relation for;367
6.10.15;Appendix-6 Values of Thermal Conductivity Constants for a Few Materials, Drawn from Sources, Including ‘ International Critical Tables’( 1927), ‘ Smithsonian Physical Tables’ ( 1934), ‘ Landholt- Bornstein’ ( 1923 – 1936), ‘ McAdams’ ( 1942) and others;369
6.10.16;Appendix-7 Physical Units and Dimensions;370
6.10.17;Appendix-8 Some Useful Physical Constants and Parameters;371
7;References;374
8;Author Index;380
9;Subject Index;384